This article is about the United States president. For other uses, see Thomas Jefferson (disambiguation). Thomas Jefferson 3rd President of the United States In office March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809 Vice President Aaron Burr George Clinton Preceded by John Adams Succeeded by James Madison 2nd Vice President of the United States In office March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801 President John Adams Preceded by John Adams Succeeded by Aaron Burr 1st United States Secretary of State In office March 22, 1790 – December 31, 1793 President George Washington Preceded by John Jay (Acting) Succeeded by Edmund Randolph United States Ambassador to France In office May 17, 1785 – September 26, 1789 Appointed by Congress of the Confederation Preceded by Benjamin Franklin Succeeded by William Short Delegate from Virginia to the Congress of the Confederation In office November 1, 1783 – May 7, 1784 Preceded by James Madison Succeeded by Richard Henry Lee 2nd Governor of Virginia In office June 1, 1779 – June 3, 1781 Preceded by Patrick Henry Succeeded by William Fleming Delegate from Virginia to the Second Continental Congress In office June 20, 1775 – September 26, 1776 Preceded by George Washington Succeeded by John Harvie Born April 13, 1743(1743-04-13) Shadwell, Colony of Virginia Died July 4, 1826(1826-07-04) (aged 83) Charlottesville, Virginia Political party Democratic-Republican Party Spouse(s) Martha Wayles Children Martha Jane Mary Lucy Lucy Elizabeth Alma mater College of William and Mary Profession Planter Lawyer Teacher Religion See below Signature Classic engraving of Jefferson 1st Presidential Commemorative of 1904. Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826)1 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809) and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776). An influential Founding Father, Jefferson envisioned America as a great "Empire of Liberty" that would promote republicanism.2 Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781), barely escaping capture by the British in 1781.3 Many people disliked his tenure, and he did not win office again in Virginia.4 From mid-1784 5 through late 1789 6 Jefferson lived outside the United States. He served in Paris initially as a commissioner to help negotiate commercial treaties.7 In May 1785 he succeeded Benjamin Franklin as the U.S. Minister to France. 8 He was the first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793) under George Washington and advised him against a national bank and the Jay Treaty. He was the second Vice President (1797–1801) under John Adams. Winning on an anti-federalist platform, Jefferson took the oath of office and became President of the United States in 1801. As president he negotiated the Louisiana Purchase (1803), and sent the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) to explore the vast new territory and lands further west.9 Jefferson sponsored embargo laws that escalated tensions with Britain and France, leading to war with Britain in 1812 shortly after he left office. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a limited federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state10 and was the author of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). Jefferson's revolutionary view on individual religious freedom and protection from government authority have generated much interest with modern scholars.11 He was the eponym of Jeffersonian democracy and the co-founder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated American politics for 25 years. Born into a prominent planter family, Jefferson owned hundreds of slaves throughout his life; he held views on the racial inferiority of Africans common for this period in time.12 While historians long discounted accounts that Jefferson had an intimate relationship with his slave Sally Hemings, it is now widely held that he did and had six children by her.131415 Contents 1 Early life and education 1.1 Family 1.2 Education 1.3 Career 2 Political career from 1775 to 1800 2.1 Drafting a declaration 2.2 State legislator 2.3 Governor of Virginia 2.4 Member of Congress 2.5 Minister to France 2.6 Secretary of State 2.7 Break from office 2.8 Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency 2.9 Election of 1800 3 Presidency 1801–1809 3.1 Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801–1809 4 Father of a university 5 Slavery 5.1 Attitude towards slaves and blacks 5.2 Slavery 6 Marriage and family 6.1 Wife and children 6.2 Sally Hemings and her children 6.2.1 Controversy 7 Death 8 Interests, activities, inventions, and improvements 9 Political philosophy and views 9.1 Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights 10 Religion 11 Native American policy 11.1 Acculturation and assimilation 11.2 Forced removal and extermination 12 Reputation and memorials 12.1 Reputation 12.2 Memorials 13 Writings 14 See also 15 Notes 16 Bibliography 16.1 Biographical 16.2 Politics and ideas 16.3 Religion 16.4 Legacy and historiography 16.5 Primary sources 17 External links Early life and education Family The third of ten children, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 1 into a planter family closely related to some of the most prominent individuals in Virginia. Two siblings died in childhood.16 His mother was Jane Randolph, daughter of Isham Randolph of Dungeness, a ship's captain and sometime planter, first cousin to Peyton Randolph, and granddaughter of wealthy English and Scottish gentry. Jefferson's father was Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor in Albemarle County (Shadwell, then Edge Hill, Virginia.) He was of possible Welsh descent, although this remains unclear.17 When Colonel William Randolph, an old friend of Peter Jefferson, died in 1745, Peter assumed executorship and personal charge of William Randolph's estate in Tuckahoe as well as his infant son, Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. That year the Jeffersons relocated to Tuckahoe, where they would remain for the next seven years before returning to their home in Albemarle in 1752. Peter Jefferson was appointed to the colonelcy of the county, an important position at the time.18 When Jefferson was 22, his oldest sister Jane died at the age of 25 on October 1, 1765.19 He fell into a period of deep mourning, as he was already saddened by the absence of his sisters Mary, who had been married several years to Thomas Bolling, and Martha, who had wed in July to Dabney Carr.19 Both had moved to their husbands' residences. Only Jefferson's younger siblings Elizabeth, Lucy, and the two toddlers, were at home. He drew little comfort from the younger ones, as they did not provide him with the same intellectual stimulation as the older sisters had.19 Education In 1752, Jefferson began attending a local school run by a Scottish Presbyterian minister. At the age of nine, Jefferson began studying Latin, Greek, and French; he learned to ride horses, and began to appreciate the study of nature. In 1757, when he was 14 years old, his father died. Jefferson inherited about 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land and dozens of slaves. He studied under the Reverend James Maury from 1758 to 1760 near Gordonsville, Virginia. While boarding with Maury's family, he studied history, science and the classics.20 At age 16, Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, and for two years he studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under Professor William Small, who introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of the British Empiricists, including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton.21 He also improved his French, Greek, and violin. A diligent student, Jefferson displayed an avid curiosity in all fieldsa22 and graduated in 1762 with highest honors. He read law with William & Mary law professor George Wythe and was admitted to the Virginia bar five years later in 1767.23 Career Jefferson handled many cases as a lawyer in colonial Virginia, and was very active from 1768 to 1773.24 Jefferson's client list included members of the Virginia's elite families, including members of his mother's family, the Randolphs.24 Monticello In 1768 Thomas Jefferson started the construction of Monticello, a neoclassical mansion. Since childhood, Jefferson had always wanted to build a beautiful mountaintop home within sight of Shadwell.2526 Jefferson fell greatly in debt by spending lavishly over the years on Monticello in what was a continuing project to create a neoclassical environment, based on his study of the architect Andrea Palladio and the classical orders. 27 Besides practicing law, Jefferson represented Albemarle County in the Virginia House of Burgesses beginning in 1769. Following the passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament in 1774, he wrote a set of resolutions against the acts, which were expanded into A Summary View of the Rights of British America, his first published work. Previous criticism of the Coercive Acts had focused on legal and constitutional issues, but Jefferson offered the radical notion that the colonists had the natural right to govern themselves.28 Jefferson also argued that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and had no legislative authority in the colonies.28 The paper was intended to serve as instructions for the Virginia delegation of the First Continental Congress, but Jefferson's ideas proved to be too radical for that body.28 Political career from 1775 to 1800 Rudolph Evans' statue of Jefferson with excerpts from the Declaration of Independence to the right Drafting a declaration Jefferson served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress beginning in June 1775, soon after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. When Congress began considering a resolution of independence in June 1776, Jefferson was appointed to a five-man committee to prepare a declaration to accompany the resolution. The committee selected Jefferson to write the first draft probably because of his reputation as a writer. The assignment was considered routine; no one at the time thought that it was a major responsibility.29 Jefferson completed a draft in consultation with other committee members, drawing on his own proposed draft of the Virginia Constitution, George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and other sources.30

Jefferson showed his draft to the committee, which made some final revisions, and then presented it to Congress on June 28, 1776. After voting in favor of the resolution of independence on July 2, Congress turned its attention to the declaration. Over several days of debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.31 On July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was ratified. The Declaration would eventually become Jefferson's major claim to fame, and his eloquent preamble became an enduring statement of human rights.31 State legislator In John Trumbull's painting Declaration of Independence, the five-man drafting committee is presenting its work to the Continental Congress. Jefferson is the tall figure in the center laying the Declaration on the desk. In September 1776, Jefferson returned to Virginia and was elected to the new Virginia House of Delegates. During his term in the House, Jefferson set out to reform and update Virginia's system of laws to reflect its new status as a democratic state. He drafted 126 bills in three years, including laws to abolish primogeniture, establish freedom of religion, and streamline the judicial system. In 1778, Jefferson's "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge" and subsequent efforts to reduce clerical control led to some small changes at William and Mary College.32 While in the state legislature Jefferson proposed a bill to eliminate capital punishment for all crimes except murder and treason. His effort to end the death penalty law was defeated.33 Governor of Virginia Jefferson served as governor of Virginia from 1779–1781. As governor in 1780, he transferred the state capital from Williamsburg to Richmond. He continued to advocate educational reforms at the College of William and Mary, including the nation's first student-policed honor code. In 1779, at Jefferson's behest, William and Mary appointed George Wythe to be the first professor of law in an American university. The British invaded Virginia under Benedict Arnold and then by Lord Cornwallis. He and other rebel leaders in Virginia barely escaped capture by the British in June 1781.34 Many people disliked his tenure, and he not win office again in Virginia.35 However, in 1783 he was appointed to Congress by the state legislature. Member of Congress See also: Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States The Virginia state legislature appointed Jefferson to the Congress of the Confederation on 6 June 1783, his term beginning on 1 November. He was a member of the committee formed to set foreign exchange rates, and in that capacity he recommended that the American currency be based on the decimal system. Jefferson also recommended setting up the Committee of the States, to function as the executive arm of Congress when Congress was not in session. He left Congress when he was elected a minister plenipotentiary on 7 May 1784. Minister to France Memorial plaque on the Champs-Élysées, Paris, France, marking where Jefferson lived while he was Minister to France. The plaque was erected after World War I to commemorate the centenary of Jefferson's founding of the University of Virginia. Jefferson served as minister to France from 1785 to 1789, and did not attend the Philadelphia Convention, though he followed the proceedings by correspondence, and was supportive of it. Beginning in early September 1785, Jefferson collaborated by mail with John Adams in London to outline an anti-piracy treaty with Morocco. 3637 Their work culminated in a treaty that was ratified by Congress on 18 July 1787 and is still in force today, making it the longest unbroken treaty relationship in U.S. history. 38 He enjoyed the architecture, arts, and the salon culture of Paris. He often dined with many of the city's most prominent people, but sided with the revolutionaries in 1789 French Revolution.3940 While in Paris, Jefferson corresponded with a number of individuals who had important roles in events leading up to the French Revolution. These included marquis de Lafayette and comte de Mirabeau, a popular pamphleteer who echoed ideals that had been the basis for the American Revolution. 414243 He and his daughters brought some of their slaves, like James Hemings, who trained as a French chef. Sally Hemings, James' sister, went with Jefferson's younger daughter. It was likely Jefferson began his long-term relationship with Sally Hemings while in Paris.4445 Secretary of State As George Washington's (1790–1793) Secretary of State, Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton argued over national fiscal policy, especially the funding of the debts of the war. Jefferson later compared Hamilton and the Federalists with "Royalism", and stated the "Hamiltonians were panting after...crowns, coronets and mitres."46 Jefferson and James Madison founded and led the Democratic-Republican Party. He worked with Madison and his campaign manager John J. Beckley to build a nationwide network of Republican allies. The French minister said in 1793: "Senator Morris and Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton...had the greatest influence over the President's mind, and that it was only with difficulty that he [Jefferson] counterbalanced their efforts."47 Jefferson supported France against Britain when they fought in 1793.48 Jefferson believed that political success at home depended on the success of the French army in Europe.49The French minister in 1793, Edmond-Charles Genêt, caused a crisis when he tried to influence public opinion in appealing to the people, something Jefferson tried to stop. Break from office Jefferson retired to Monticello in late 1793 where he continued to oppose the policies of Hamilton and Washington. However, the Jay Treaty of 1794, led by Hamilton, brought peace and trade with Britain – while Madison, with strong support from Jefferson, wanted, "to strangle the former mother country" without going to war. "It became an article of faith among Republicans that 'commercial weapons' would suffice to bring Great Britain to any terms the United States chose to dictate."50 Even during the violence of the Reign of Terror, Jefferson refused to disavow the revolution because "To back away from France would be to undermine the cause of republicanism in America." 51 Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency As the Democratic-Republican candidate in 1796 he lost to John Adams, but had enough electoral votes to become Vice President (1797–1801). He wrote a manual of parliamentary procedure, but otherwise avoided the Senate.citation needed With the Quasi-War underway, the Federalists under John Adams started rebuilding the military, levied new taxes, and enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson interpreted the Alien and Sedition Acts as an effort to suppress Democratic-Republicans rather than dangerous enemy aliens, and were used to attack his party. Jefferson and Madison rallied support by anonymously writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which declared that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it by the states.citation needed Election of 1800 Main article: United States presidential election, 1800 Working closely with Aaron Burr of New York, Jefferson rallied his party, attacking the new taxes especially, and ran for the Presidency in 1800. Before the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, a problem with the new union's electoral system arose. He tied with Burr for first place in the electoral college, leaving the House of Representatives (where the Federalists still had some power) to decide the election.citation needed Hamilton convinced his party that Jefferson would be a lesser political evil than Burr and that such scandal within the electoral process would undermine the new constitution. On February 17, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Jefferson President and Burr Vice President. Jefferson later removed Burr from the ticket in 1804 after Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.citation needed Jefferson owed his election victory to the South's inflated number of Electors, which counted slaves under the three-fifths compromise.5253 After his election in 1800, some called him the "Negro President", with critics like the Mercury and New-England Palladium of Boston that Jefferson had the gall to celebrate his election as a victory for democracy when he won "the temple of Liberty on the shoulders of slaves."5354 Presidency 1801–1809 Main article: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Jefferson helped repeal many federal taxes in his bid to rely more on customs revenue. He pardoned people imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed in John Adams' term. He repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801 and removed many of Adams' "midnight judges" from office, which led to the Supreme Court deciding the important case of Marbury v. Madison. He began and won the First Barbary War (1801–1805), America's first significant overseas war, and established the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1802. In 1803 Jefferson bought the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the United States.55 He also signed into law a bill that officially segregated the U.S. postal system by not allowing blacks to carry mail.56 In 1807, Jefferson ordered Aaron Burr tried for treason, but he was acquitted. During the trial Chief Justice John Marshall subpoenaed Jefferson, who invoked executive privilege and claimed that as president he did not need to comply. When Marshall held that the Constitution did not provide the president with any exception, Jefferson backed down. In March that year, Jefferson signed a bill making slave importation illegal in the United States.5758 However, by this time only South Carolina imported slaves, and Jefferson was not the main person pushing for the ban.5960 Jefferson's reputation was damaged by the Embargo Act of 1807, which was ineffective and was repealed at the end of his second term. Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801–1809 The Jefferson Cabinet Office Name Term President Thomas Jefferson 1801–1809 Vice President Aaron Burr 1801–1805 George Clinton 1805–1809 Secretary of State James Madison 1801–1809 Secretary of Treasury Samuel Dexter 1801 Albert Gallatin 1801–1809 Secretary of War Henry Dearborn 1801–1809 Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. 1801–1804 John Breckinridge 1805–1806 Caesar A. Rodney 1807–1809 Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert 1801 Robert Smith 1801–1809

Associate Justice William Johnson – 1804 Henry Brockholst Livingston – 1807 Thomas Todd – 1807 States admitted to the Union: Ohio – March 1, 1803 Painting of Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale (1805) Father of a university Also see: History of the University of Virginia The Lawn, University of Virginia After his political career, Jefferson focused on creating a university free of religious involvement, offering courses in many new areas not offered elsewhere. This would help create a more organised society, where some schools would be paid for by the general public, for the benefit of poorer Americans.61 The University of Virginia was founded opened in 1825, and was Jefferson's project. It was notable for being centered about a library rather than a church. Jefferson is widely recognized for his architectural planning of the University of Virginia grounds, a design that represents his goals education and agriculture. Jefferson liked Greek and Roman styles, which he believed to be appropriate representation of American democracy.citation needed Slavery Main article: Thomas Jefferson and slavery Attitude towards slaves and blacks According to historian Stephen Ambrose: "Jefferson, like all slaveholders and many other white members of American society, regarded Negroes as inferior, childlike, untrustworthy and, of course, as property."62 He believed they were inferior to whites in reasoning, mathematical comprehension, and imagination. Jefferson thought these "differences" were "fixed in nature" and was not dependent on their freedom or education.63 He thought there were differences that created the "innate inferiority of Blacks compared to Whites". The historian Nicholas Magnis says of his writings: "This is the essence of racial bias."64 Jefferson did not believe that African Americans could live in American society as free people, saying "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free. [But] the two races...cannot live in the same government."65 For a long-term solution, he thought that slaves should be freed after reaching maturity and they had repaid their owners investment; afterward, he thought they should be sent to African colonies in what he considered "repatriation", despite their being American-born. Otherwise, he thought the presence of free blacks would encourage a violent uprising by slaves' looking for freedom.66 Jefferson expressed his fear of slave rebellion: "We have the wolf by the ears; and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self-preservation in the other."67 In 1809, he wrote to Abbé Grégoire, whose book argued against Jefferson's claims of black inferiority in Notes on Virginia. Jefferson said blacks had "respectable intelligence", but did not alter his views.6869 In August 1814 Edward Coles and Jefferson corresponded about Coles' ideas on emancipation. Jefferson urged Coles not to free his slaves.7071 Slavery Jefferson inherited slaves as a child, and throughout his life owned hundreds of black men, women and children.72 Some biographers take the position that Jefferson's debt prevented him freeing his slaves;73 however, other scholars, such as Paul Finkelman, say that freeing slaves was "not even a mildly important goal". The historian notes Jefferson's lavish spending at Monticello and failure to take any steps when contemporaries were allowing slaves to hire themselves out and pay off their purchase price for freedom, something Jefferson could have done.74 His claimed ambivalence was reflected in his treatment of those slaves who worked most closely with him and his family at Monticello and in other locations.75 In the first two decades after the Revolution, the legislatures of Virginia, Maryland and Delaware made it easier for slaveholders to manumit their slaves.76 In Virginia the number of free blacks climbed: from less than one percent in 1782, to 4.2 percent in 1790, and 13.5 percent in 1810.77 In Delaware, three-quarters of blacks were free by 1810.78 In the two decades following the Revolution, some slaveholders were moved by its ideals to free their slaves, either during their lives or by deed of will. In the Upper South, the percentage of free blacks went from less than 1 percent in 1780 to more than 10 percent in 1810.79 Isaac Jefferson, ca. 1847, a blacksmith who worked as a slave on Jefferson's plantation. His interview was published in 1842 as Memoirs of a Monticello Slave. His account provided details to historians about life at Monticello.8081 While Jefferson was a member of the Virginia legislature during the 1770s, he authored legislation preventing freed blacks from living or moving into Virginia, and punishing interracial relations. Jefferson believed that freed blacks should be deported and replaced with white settlers. The forced deportation of blacks would prevent a race war between former slaves and whites, according to Jefferson. He proposed what he considered to be reasonable policies: education, emancipation, and repatriation of the former slaves.8283 In his first draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson condemned the British crown for the slave trade, but not slavery, saying he (the King) "has waged cruel war against human nature itself...captivating & carrying them into slavery." He also condemned the King for "inciting American Negroes to rise in arms against their masters".8485 However, this language was dropped from the Declaration at the request of delegates from South Carolina and Georgia. In 1778 the Virginia legislature passed a bill he introduced to ban further importation of slaves into the state. Many slave owners opposed the international slave trade, while supporting slavery. Ending the importation of slaves benefitted slaveholders because it increased the value of slaves and decreased the chances of slave rebellion associated with new arrivals.8687 In 1807, as President, Jefferson signed a bill abolishing the import or export of slaves, which was already outlawed by all states except South Carolina; he was not the main force behind the legislation, to which resistance was small.88 Marriage and family Wife and children Main article: Ancestry of Thomas Jefferson In 1772, at age 29 Jefferson married the 23-year-old widow Martha Wayles Skelton. They had six children, only two of whom survived to adulthood. Only Martha lived beyond age 26. Martha Washington Jefferson (1772–1836), who married Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr., future governor of Virginia. They had twelve children, eleven of whom survived to adulthood. Jane Jefferson (1774–1775) stillborn or unnamed son (1777) Mary Wayles Jefferson (1778–1804), married her cousin John Wayles Eppes, son of Martha's sister, Elizabeth Wayles Eppes. Mary died at age 25 after the birth of her third child; only their son Francis W. Eppes survived to adulthood. Jefferson made his grandson the designated heir of Poplar Forest, originally intended for Mary. In 1829 Francis Eppes moved to Florida, where he had a cotton plantation until the Civil War. Lucy Elizabeth (1780–1781) Lucy Elizabeth (1782–1785) (it was the tradition to name next children after one who had died, particularly when the family was also trying to pass down family names). Lucy died while Jefferson was in Paris, prompting him to have his youngest daughter Polly (Mary) sent to him, who was then age nine. Martha Jefferson died on September 6, 1782, a few months after the birth of her last child. Jefferson never remarried. At his wife's bedside when she died, Jefferson was deeply upset after her death, and often rode on secluded roads to mourn for his wife.89 Sally Hemings and her children See also: Sally Hemings, Jefferson DNA data, Annette Gordon-Reed, and Monticello Association Scholars now generally accept that as a widower, Jefferson had an intimate relationship with his mixed-race slave Sally Hemings, which lasted nearly four decades, and six children by her. In that historical period, the Hemingses would have been called a "shadow family". Hemings was three-fourths white, and likely a half-sister to Jefferson's late wife, as their father was John Wayles. He was said to have his own "shadow family" of six children by Betty Hemings, of whom the youngest was Sally. Hemings' children by Jefferson were seven-eighths European in ancestry and legally white according to Virginia law of the time. Of the four who survived to adulthood: William Beverley, Harriet, Madison and Eston Hemings, all but Madison identified as white and lived in white communities as adults. Eston particularly was said to resemble Jefferson.90 Three sons were named after people important to Jefferson, rather than people in the Hemings family.91 Jefferson allowed the oldest two: Beverley (a male) and Harriet Hemings to escape Monticello in 1822, providing Harriet money for her trip through his overseer; they lived in Washington, DC according to their appearances as whites and married white partners.92 Jefferson gave special treatment to the larger Hemings family as well; he allowed Sally's brother Robert Hemings to be purchased and freed in 1794; and in 1796, he personally freed James Hemings, another brother of Sally's.93 Jefferson freed five additional slaves by his will: his youngest sons Madison and Eston Hemings, and three males from the extended Hemings family.94 Controversy In 1802 the journalist James T. Callender reported that Jefferson had fathered several children with Sally Hemings. Jefferson never responded publicly, but his family tried to protect him. For instance, his grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph told a 19th-c. biographer that Hemings had been the mistress of Jefferson's nephew Peter Carr.95 In 1873 Madison Hemings stated his father was Thomas Jefferson and his mother was Sally Hemings in an Ohio newspaper interview. Both at the time and in 1951, when his memoir was rediscovered, his testimony was discounted by many historians. Merrill Peterson and Douglas Adair, two modern historians, dismissed Madison Hemings's statements as unreliable or politically motivated. Dumas Malone, Jefferson's primary biographer in mid-century, adopted both the opinions of Peterson and Adair on Madison Hemings.96 In 1974 Fawn McKay Brodie's biography of Jefferson examined the reputed relationship for the first time. She used Dumas Malone's documented timeline to establish that Jefferson was at Monticello nine months before Hemings had each of her children, which had been denied by Jefferson-Wayles descendants. She developed other significant information but her book was discounted because of her pscychological analysis.9798 Historians continued to publish biographies discounting the Hemings story, such as Joseph Ellis in his award-winning American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1993).

In 1997 Annette Gordon-Reed demonstrated that many historians had failed to assess critical evidence by various parties to the controversy. She noted their errors in fact because of failing to cross check data. She also noted the significance of Jefferson's actions related to the Sally Hemings' family: for example, they were the only slave family at Monticello that had all of its members freed.99 In 1998, Eugene Foster led a DNA study of descendants of the Jefferson male line, John Carr (father of Peter and Samuel, proposed as fathers of Hemings' children), and Thomas Woodson and Eston Hemings, two Monticello slaves who claimed Jefferson as an ancestor through Sally Hemings. 100 The team found there was a match between the Jefferson male line and the Eston Hemings descendant. They concluded that, with historical evidence, "the most probable explanations for our molecular findings are that Thomas Jefferson, rather than one of the Carr brothers, was the father of Eston Hemings Jefferson." The team found that the Carr line was not related to the Hemings descendants; nor was the Jefferson line related to Thomas Woodson's descendants.90 Biographers such as Joseph Ellis and Andrew Burstein publicly stated their being convinced of Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children. 101 The Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation (TJMF), which operates Monticello, called a Research Committee to evaluate the evidence. In 2000 its report concluded that Thomas Jefferson was the father of Eston Heming, and that he likely had a long-term relationship with Sally and fathered her other children.15 Not all historians were convinced, and some continue to disagree with these conclusions. The newly formed Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS) commissioned its own report, which concluded in 2001 that there was insufficient evidence to conclude that Jefferson was the father of Hemings's children. In 1999 the Monticello Association, a private lineage society of Thomas Jefferson descendants, commissioned its own report. Based on it, in 2002 most of the members voted not to admit the Hemings descendants, nor to change the Association's documentation requirements, while they acknowledged these could be hard for slave descendants to satisfy.102 Later that year, the National Genealogical Society Quarterly had a special issue, concluding that the weight of historical evidence plus the DNA results, demonstrated that Jefferson was the father of Hemings' children and had a long-term relationship with her. They criticized the TJHS report for violating good historical and genealogical practices, and ignoring the body of evidence.103 Since 2001, scholarship has changed; it is widely accepted that Jefferson had a long relationship with Hemings and fathered her children. Gordon-Reed's The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (2007) explored the slave family's history, based on Thomas Jefferson's paternity of Hemings' children. In his 2008 review of the book, the historian Eric Foner dealt with the Jefferson-Hemings relationship as a given, referring to "their children" and noting that their sons bore names important to Jefferson.104 The book won the Pulitzer Prize for History and fifteen other major historical and literary awards from leading organizations in recognition of its quality and significance. Death Jefferson's gravesite105 Jefferson' health began to deteriorate by July 1825, and by June 1826 he was confined to bed. He likely died from uremia, severe diarrhea, and pneumonia.106unreliable source?Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, and a few hours before John Adams.107 Though born into a wealthy slave-owning family, Jefferson had many financial problems, and was deeply in debt. After his death, his possessions, and slaves, were sold, including Monticello in 1831. Thomas Jefferson is buried at his longtime home in Albemarle County. His epitaph, written by him, reads: "HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA." And below it: BORN APRIL 2. 1743. O.S. DIED JULY 4. 1826.108109 Interests, activities, inventions, and improvements Jefferson was a farmer, with a lifelong interest in mechanical innovations, new crops, soil conditions, and scientific agricultural techniques. He took special interest in his gardens. He main cash crop was tobacco, but its price was usually low and it was rarely profitable. He tried to achieve self-sufficiency with wheat, vegetables, flax, corn, hogs, sheep, poultry and cattle to feed and clothe his family, slaves and white employees, but he had cash flow problems and was always in debt. 110111 Jefferson's drawing of a pasta machine, ca. 1787 Jefferson had a love for reading and collecting thousands of books in his personal library and kept several collections. Jefferson stated that he could not "live without books" and that he had a "canine appetite for reading." His library collection he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815, contained 6,700 books. In honor of Jefferson's contribution the library's website for federal legislative information was named THOMAS.112 In 2007, Jefferson's two-volume 1764 edition of the Qur'an was used by Rep. Keith Ellison for his swearing in to the House of Representatives.113 In February, 2011 the New York Times reported that a part of Jefferson's retirement library containing 74 volumes with 28 book titles was discovered at Washington University in St. Louis. 114 Jefferson was an accomplished architect who helped popularize bringing the Neo-Palladian in the United States.115 It is frequently claimed that Jefferson was an advocate for growing and smoking hemp. Modern scholarship indicates that hemp was in fact a secondary crop at Monticello, but that there exists no evidence of Jefferson using the plant for euphoriant purposes.116 Jefferson was interested in birds and wine, and was a noted gourmet. Jefferson was a prolific writer. He learned Gaelic to translate Ossian, and sent to James Macpherson for the originals.117 Jefferson invented many small practical devices and number of improvements to contemporary inventions. Thomas Jefferson invented the design for a revolving stand that could hold five books at once to be viewed by the reader. Jefferson invented the Great Clock that was powered by the earth's gravitational pull on Revolutionary War cannonballs. The gong chime for the clock, mounted on top of Monticello's roof, could be heard as far as the University of Virginia. Louis Leschot, a machinist, aided Jefferson with this clock invention. Jefferson invented a 15 cm long coded wooden cypher wheel mounted on a metal spindel used to keep secure State Department messages while he was Secretary of State. The messages were scrambled and unscrambled by 26 alphabet letters on each individual circular segments of the wheel. Jefferson improved the moldboard plow and the polygraph, in collaboration with Charles Wilson Peale.118 Political philosophy and views In his May 28, 1818, letter to Mordecai Manuel Noah, Jefferson expressed his faith in humanity and his views on the nature of democracy. Jefferson was a leader in developing republicanism in the United States. He insisted that the British aristocratic system was inherently corrupt and that Americans' devotion to civic virtue required independence. Jefferson's vision was that of an agricultural nation of yeoman farmers minding their own affairs.citation needed Jefferson's republican political principles were heavily influenced by the Country Party of 18th century British opposition writers. He was influenced by John Locke (particularly relating to the principle of inalienable rights).119 Jefferson opposed borrowing from banks because he believed it created long-term debt as well as monopolies, and inclined the people to dangerous speculation, as opposed to productive labor on the farm.120 Jefferson believed that each man has "certain inalienable rights". He defines the right of "liberty" by saying, "Rightful liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal rights of others..."121 A proper government, for Jefferson, is one that not only prohibits individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of other individuals, but also restrains itself from diminishing individual liberty. Abigail Adams excepted, Jefferson did not support gender equality, and opposed female involvement in politics, saying that "our good ladies ... are contented to soothe and calm the minds of their husbands returning ruffled from political debate."122 Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights After the Revolutionary War, Jefferson advocated restraining government via rebellion and violence when necessary, in order to protect individual freedoms. In a letter to James Madison on January 30, 1787, Jefferson wrote, "A little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical...It is a medicine necessary for the sound health of government."123 Similarly, in a letter to Abigail Adams on February 22, 1787 he wrote, "The spirit of resistance to government is so valuable on certain occasions that I wish it to be always kept alive. It will often be exercised when wrong, but better so than not to be exercised at all."123 Concerning Shays' Rebellion after he had heard of the bloodshed, on November 13, 1787 Jefferson wrote to William S. Smith, John Adams' son-in-law, "What signify a few lives lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must from time to time be refreshed with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure."124 In another letter to William S. Smith during 1787, Jefferson wrote: And what country can preserve its liberties, if the rulers are not warned from time to time, that this people preserve the spirit of resistance? Let them take arms.123 Religion Further information: Thomas Jefferson and religion Jefferson rejected the orthodox Christianity of his day and was especially hostile to the Catholic Church as he saw it operate in France. Throughout his life Jefferson was intensely interested in theology, biblical study, and morality. As a landowner he played a role in governing his local Episcopal Church; in terms of belief he was inclined toward Unitarianism and the religious philosophy of Deism. Under the influence of several of his college professors, he converted to the deist philosophy.125 Dulles concludes: “ "Jefferson was a deist because he believed in one God, in divine providence, in the divine moral law, and in rewards and punishments after death, but did not believe in supernatural revelation. He was a Christian deist because he saw Christianity as the highest expression of natural religion and Jesus as an incomparably great moral teacher. He was not an orthodox Christian because he rejected, among other things, the doctrines that Jesus was the promised Messiah and the incarnate Son of God." ”

In private letters, Jefferson refers to himself as "Christian" (1803): "To the corruptions of Christianity I am, indeed, opposed; but not to the genuine precepts of Jesus himself. I am a Christian, in the only sense in which he wished any one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines, in preference to all others; ascribing to himself every human excellence....126 Jefferson believed in the moral teachings of Christ and edited a compilation of Christ's teachings leaving out the miracles.127 Jefferson was firmly anticlerical saying that in "every country and every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot...they have perverted the purest religion ever preached to man into mystery and jargon, unintelligible to all mankind, and therefore the safer for their purposes."128 Jefferson told Adams he had doubts on the existence of invisible beings such as God, angels, and the soul writing, "To talk of immaterial existences is to talk of nothings."129 Native American policy Jefferson was the first President to propose the idea of a formal Indian Removal plan.130131 Andrew Jackson is often erroneously credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 during his presidency. He was in favor of this policy as well and gained legislative support for it. In addition he was involved in the extermination and forceful removal of many Eastern tribes.130 Jefferson had laid out an approach to Indian removal in a series of private letters that began in 1803 (for example, see letter to William Henry Harrison below).130 Between 1776 and 1779, Jefferson recommended forcing the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River.130 His first such act as president, was to make a deal with the state of Georgia: if Georgia were to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to its west, the U.S. military would help forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated by Jefferson's deal with Georgia.130 Acculturation and assimilation Jefferson's original plan was for Natives to give up their own cultures, religions, and lifestyles in favor of western European culture, Christian religion, and a European-style agricultural lifestyle.130131 Jefferson believed that their assimilation into the European-American economy would make them more dependent on trade with white Americans, and would eventually thereby be willing to give up land that they would otherwise not part with, in exchange for trade goods or to resolve unpaid debts.132 In an 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote: To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands.... In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us a citizens or the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.132 Forced removal and extermination In cases where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that they should be forcefully removed from their land and sent west.130 As Jefferson put it in a letter to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813: You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people. They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats beyond our reach.133 Jefferson believed assimilation was best for Native Americans; second best was removal to the west. The worst possible outcome would happen if Native Americans attacked the whites.134 He told his Secretary of War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississipi."135 136 Reputation and memorials Further information: List of places named for Thomas Jefferson Reputation During the New Deal era of the 1930s, Democrats especially honored him, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt took the lead in building his monument in Washington. Jefferson's reputation among the general public and in the school textbooks has generally been high based on his leadership as a founding father during the Revolution and early national period.137 Historians express dismay at his harsh treatment of Native Americans, opposition to a biracial society, and low opinion of blacks. The confirmation of his relationship with Sally Hemings, a slave who was three-quarters white, and his "shadow family" by her shows that he kept his privacy and was a complex man of contradictions. It is only historians who held him up as an icon rather than human who are disappointed to learn the truth.138139 Sean Wilentz in 2010 identified a scholarly trend in Hamilton's favor: In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into a yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands -- all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property.140 Jefferson's legacy as a champion of Enlightenment ideals has been challenged by modern historians who find his ownership of hundreds of slaves at Monticello to be in contradiction and problematic to his radical rhetoric on freedom, happiness, and the equality of men. Historian Peter Onuf stated that "Jefferson's failure to address the problem of slavery generally and the situation of his own human chattel...is in itself the most damning possible commentary on his iconic standing as 'apostle of freedom'." The historian Clarence E. Walker said that Jefferson could rationalize being a slave owner and defender of freedom since he believed blacks were inferior and needed supervision.141142143 Memorials The 1st Jefferson stamp Issue of 1856 Jefferson has been memorialized in many ways, including buildings, sculptures, and currency. The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C. on April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19-foot (6 m) statue of Jefferson and engravings of passages from his writings. Most prominent are the words which are inscribed around the monument near the roof: "I have sworn upon the altar of god eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man".144 Thomas Jefferson's portrait has been found engraved on the face of the various U.S. Postage issues that have honored him.145 His portrait appears on the U.S. $2 bill, nickel, and the $100 Series EE Savings Bond, and a Presidential Dollar which released into circulation on August 16, 2007.146 His original tombstone, now a cenotaph, is located on the campus in the University of Missouri's Quadrangle. A life mask of Jefferson was created by John Henri Isaac Browere in the 1820s.147 Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln, was chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.148 Other memorials to Jefferson include the commissioning of the NOAA ship Thomas Jefferson in Norfolk, Virginia on July 8, 2003, in commemoration of his establishment of a Survey of the Coast, the predecessor to NOAA's National Ocean Service; and the placement of a bronze monument in Jefferson Park, Chicago at the entrance to the Jefferson Park Transit Center along Milwaukee Avenue in 2005. Writings A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774) Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775) Memorandums taken on a journey from Paris into the southern parts of France and Northern Italy, in the year 1787 Notes on the State of Virginia (1781) Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United States (1801) Autobiography (1821) Jefferson Bible, or The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth See also Book: Presidents of the United States (1789–1860) Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. Jeffersonian Democracy Maria Cosway Monticello Association US Presidents on US postage stamps List of Presidents of the United States v · d · ePresidents of the United States George Washington · John Adams · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · James Monroe · John Quincy Adams · Andrew Jackson · Martin Van Buren · William Henry Harrison · John Tyler · James K. Polk · Zachary Taylor · Millard Fillmore · Franklin Pierce · James Buchanan · Abraham Lincoln · Andrew Johnson · Ulysses S. Grant · Rutherford B. Hayes · James A. Garfield · Chester A. Arthur · Grover Cleveland · Benjamin Harrison · Grover Cleveland · William McKinley · Theodore Roosevelt · William Howard Taft · Woodrow Wilson · Warren G. Harding · Calvin Coolidge · Herbert Hoover · Franklin D. Roosevelt · Harry S. Truman · Dwight D. Eisenhower · John F. Kennedy · Lyndon B. Johnson · Richard Nixon · Gerald Ford · Jimmy Carter · Ronald Reagan · George H. W. Bush · Bill Clinton · George W. Bush · Barack Obama Notes ^ a b The birth and death of Thomas Jefferson are given using the Gregorian calendar. However, he was born when Britain and her colonies still used the Julian calendar, so contemporary records (and his tombstone) record his birth as April 2, 1743. The provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1 – see the article on Old Style and New Style dates for more details. ^ Robert W. Tucker, and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1990) ^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.  ^ Ferling 2004, p. 26 ^ Jefferson arrived in Paris, France on 6 August 1784; Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 7, Princeton University Press, 1953, p. 2. ^ Jefferson departed from Paris, France to return to the United States on 26 September 1789; Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 15, Princeton University Press, 1958, p. 2. ^ http://sc94.ameslab.gov/TOUR/tjefferson.html Retrieved March 5, 2011. ^ Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 8, Princeton University Press, 1953, p. 2. ^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867" (PDF). http://www.blm.gov/natacq/pls02/pls1-1_02.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-02.  ^ Jefferson, Thomas (January 1, 1802). "Jefferson's Wall of Separation Letter". U.S. Constitution Online. http://www.usconstitution.net/jeffwall.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.  ^ Menzo, Jessica (December, 2001, 2006). "Thomas Jefferson - Introduction". http://www.enotes.com/nineteenth-century-criticism/jefferson-thomas. Retrieved 02-13-2011.  ^ Thomas Jefferson, David Waldstreicher, Notes on the State of Virginia, 2002 pg 214 ^ "Online Newshour: Thomas Jefferson". pbs.org. 1998-11-02. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec98/jefferson_11-2.html. Retrieved 2006-08-04.  Quote: Joseph Ellis "...[T]his is really new evidence. And it—prior to this evidence, I think it was a very difficult case to know and circumstantial on both sides, and, in part, because I got it wrong, I think I want to step forward and say this new evidence constitutes, well, evidence beyond any reasonable doubt that Jefferson had a longstanding sexual relationship with Sally Hemings." ^ Helen F.M. Lear, National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 89, No. 3, September 2001, p. 207 ^ a b Statement on the TJF Research Committee Report on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings, Monticello.org. Quote: "Dr. Foster's DNA study was conducted in a manner that meets the standards of the scientific community, and its scientific results are valid." "The DNA study, combined with multiple strands of currently available documentary and statistical evidence, indicates a high probability that Thomas Jefferson fathered Eston Hemings, and that he most likely was the father of all six of Sally Hemings's children appearing in Jefferson's records. Those children are Harriet, who died in infancy; Beverly; an unnamed daughter who died in infancy; Harriet; Madison; and Eston." ^ "Facts on Thomas Jefferson". Revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com. 1943-04-13. http://www.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/facts-on-thomas-jefferson.html. Retrieved 2010-02-04.  ^ Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia – Welsh Ancestry. Retrieved June 2, 2010. ^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson ^ a b c Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 41 ^ Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (Oxford UP, 1975) pp 7-9 ^ Merrill D. Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: Writings, p. 1236 ^ Thomas Jefferson on Wine by John Hailman, 2006 ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography, pp. 9-12 ^ a b Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 47 ^ Thomas Jefferson p. 214 ^ TJ to John Minor August 30, 1814 Lipscomb and Bergh, WTJ 2:420-21 ^ ArchitectureWeek. "The Orders – 01". http://www.architectureweek.com/topics/orders-01.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20.  ^ a b c Merrill D. Peterson, "Jefferson, Thomas"; American National Biography Online, February 2000. ^ Ellis, American Sphinx, 47–49. ^ Maier, American Scripture. Other standard works on Jefferson and the Declaration include Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence (1978) and Carl L. Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (1922). ^ a b Ellis, American Sphinx, 50. ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography p 146-49 ^ Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography pp 125-29 ^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.  ^ Ferling 2004, p. 26 ^ Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 8, Princeton University Press, 1953, pp. 610-624. ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/bar1786t.asp Retrieved February 15, 2011. ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5431.htm Retrieved February 15, 2011. ^ Lawrence S. Kaplan, "Jefferson and France: An Essay on Politics and Political Ideas", Yale University Press, 1980 ^ Ronald R. Schuckel "The origins of Thomas Jefferson as a Francophile, 1784-1789", Butler University, 1965. ^ http://www.archive.org/stream/essaisurledespo01miragoog#page/n5/mode/2up Retrieved February 16, 2011. ^ Antonina Vallentin, "Mirabeau", trans. E.W. Dickes, The Viking Press, 1948, p. 86. ^ Julian P Boyd, "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", Vol. 10, Princeton University Press, 1953, p. 283. ^ Annette Gordon-Reed "Did Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson Love Each Other?," American Heritage, Fall 2008. ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008 ^ Ferling 2004, p. 59 ^ Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (1995), p 344. ^ "Foreign Affairs," in Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Encyclopedia (1986) p 325 ^ Schachner 1951, p. 495 ^ Miller (1960), 143–4, 148–9. ^ Thomas Jefferson, Jean M. Yarbrough, The essential Jefferson, Hackett Publishing, 2006. (p. xx) ^ An American History Lesson For Pat Buchana, Kenneth C. Davis, Huffington Post, July 18, 2009. ^ a b Thomas Jefferson, the 'Negro President', Gary Willis on The Tavis Smiley Show, February 16, 2004. ^ Negro President: Jefferson and the Slave Powerdead link, Review of Garry Willis's book on WNYC, February 16, 2004. ^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867" (PDF). http://www.blm.gov/natacq/pls02/pls1-1_02.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-02.  ^ John Hope Franklin, Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988 (Louisiana State University Press: 1989) p. 336 and John Hope Franklin, Racial Equality in America (Chicago: 1976), p. 24-26 ^ Martin Kelly. "Thomas Jefferson Biography – Third President of the United States". http://americanhistory.about.com/od/thomasjefferson/p/pjefferson.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-05.  ^ Robert MacNamara. "Importation of Slaves Outlawed by 1807 Act of Congress". http://history1800s.about.com/od/slaveryinamerica/a/1807slaveact.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-05.  ^ |An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade|Stephen Goldfarb| Agricultural History, Vol. 68, No. 2, Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793-1993: A Symposium (Spring, 1994), pp. 27, 31 ^ Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States, p. 205 ^ "Jefferson on Politics & Government: Publicly Supported Education". Etext.lib.virginia.edu. http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeff1370.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-02.  ^ Stephen E. Ambrose, To America: Personal Reflections of an Historian (2003) p 4 ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". http://www.lectorprep.org/jefferson_and_slavery.html. Retrieved 2009-08-18.  ^ Nicholas Magnis. "Thomas Jefferson and Slavery: An Analysis of His Racist Thinking as Revealed by His Writings and Political Behavior", The Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, No. 4 (Mar., 1999) Sage Publications, pp. 500, 498 ^ Randall, Thomas Jefferson: A Life, p. 303 ^ Hitchens 2005, pp. 34–35 ^ Miller, John Chester (1977). The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and Slavery. New York: Free Press, p. 241. The letter, dated April 22, 1820, was written to former Senator John Holmes of Maine. ^ Letter of February 25, 1809 from Thomas Jefferson to French author Monsieur Gregoire, from The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (H. A. Worthington, ed.), Volume V, p. 429. Citation and quote from Morris Kominsky, The Hoaxers, pp. 110–111. ^ University of South Carolina, Digital Collections. An Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties, and Literature of Negroes; followed with an account of the life and works of fifteen negroes & mulattoes, distinguished in science, literature and the arts, Henri-Baptiste Grégoire. Commentary by Jeffrey Makala, 2004 ^ Twilight at Monticello, Crawford, 2008, Ch 17, p.101 ^ Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery, Paul Finkelman. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 205 ^ William Cohen, "Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery," Journal of American History 56, no. 3 (1969): 503-526, p. 510 ^ Herbert E. Sloan, Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (2001) pp. 14–26, 220–1. ^ Paul Finkelman, "Thomas Jefferson and Antislavery", The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol 102, No. 2 (Apr., 1994), pp. 220-1 ^ Hitchens 2005, p. 48 ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 77 ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81 ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 78 ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81 ^ Isaac Jefferson,Memoirs of a Monticello Slave ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: an American controversy, 1997, p 142 ^ John Ferling, Setting the World Ablaze (2000) p. 290, ^ Greg Warnusz (Summer, 1990). "This Execrable Commerce – Thomas Jefferson and Slavery". http://www.lectorprep.org/jefferson_and_slavery.html. Retrieved 2009-08-18.  ^ Was Thomas Jefferson an Authentic Enemy of Slavery? David Davies, Oxford, 1970, p. 6. ^ Benjamin Franklin, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, Jared Sparks, editor (Boston: Tappan, Whittemore, and Mason, 1839), Vol. VIII, p. 42, to the Rev. Dean Woodward on April 10, 1773. ^ [Ordinance of 1787] Lalor Cyclopædia of Political Science ^ Brogan (1985), The Penguin History of the United States, p. 205 -- Note: Prior to the national ban on slave trade, both Georgia and South Carolina in 1797 resisted banning the slave trade in their respected states on the grounds that Virginia and Pennsylvania were were bullying the states by coercion. ^ Stephen Goldfarb, "An Inquiry into the Politics of the Prohibition of the International Slave Trade", Agricultural History, Vol. 68, No. 2, Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793-1993: A Symposium (Spring, 1994), pp. 27, 31 ^ Halliday (2001), Understanding Thomas Jefferson, pp. 48-52 ^ a b Foster, EA, et al.; Jobling, MA; Taylor, PG; Donnelly, P; De Knijff, P; Mieremet, R; Zerjal, T; Tyler-Smith, C (1998). "Jefferson fathered slave's last child". Nature 396 (6706): 27–28. doi:10.1038/23835. PMID 9817200. http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Jeffersons.pdf.  ^ "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account", Monticello Foundation, accessed 9 February 2011 ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008) pp 489-503, 581-583 ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello (2008), pp 489-503, 581-583 ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy, pp. 38-43 (Univ. of Virginia Press, 1997) ^ The Real Thomas Jefferson by Allison, Andrew, K. DeLynn Cook, M. Richard Maxfield, W. Cleon Skousen pp. 232-233 National Center for Constitutional Studies, Washington, D.C. ^ Gordon-Reed, Annette (1998). "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy". University of Virginia Press. pp. 1-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=oj_WuD7ysVUC&pg=PA1&dq=Thomas+Jefferson+and+Sally+Hemings:+An+American+Controversy&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 03-04-2011.  ^ Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings ^ Halliday (2001), Understanding Thomas Jefferson, pp. 162-167 ^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, 1998, pp. 40-41] ^ DNA typing: biology, technology, and genetics of STR markers. John Marshall Butler, Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. pg 224-9 ^ "Online Newshour: Thomas Jefferson". pbs.org. 1998-11-02. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec98/jefferson_11-2.html. Retrieved 2006-08-04.  Quote: Joseph Ellis "...[T]his is really new evidence. And it—prior to this evidence, I think it was a very difficult case to know and circumstantial on both sides, and, in part, because I got it wrong, I think I want to step forward and say this new evidence constitutes, well, evidence beyond any reasonable doubt that Jefferson had a longstanding sexual relationship with Sally Hemings." ^ Chris Kahn, "Reunion bridges Jefferson family rift: Snubbed descendants of black slave hold their own event", Genealogy, MSNBC, 13 July 2003, accessed 1 March 2011 ^ Helen F.M. Lear, National Genealogical Society Quarterly, Vol. 89, No. 3, September 2001, p. 207 ^ Eric Foner, "The Master and the Mistress", Sunday Book Review, New York Times, 3 October 2008. Quote: "... Jefferson certainly took a special interest in their children. Gordon-Reed notes that while other Hemings offspring were named after relatives, Sally Hemings’s sons bore names significant for Jefferson — Thomas Eston Hemings (after his cousin) and James Madison and William Beverley Hemings (after important ­Virginians). In the end, Jefferson fulfilled the “treaty” he had agreed to in Paris and freed Sally Hemings’s surviving children. He allowed their daughter Harriet and son Beverley (ages 21 and 24) to leave Monticello in 1822. Very light-skinned, they chose to live out their lives as white people. Jefferson’s will freed Madison and Eston Hemings as well as three of their relatives.", accessed 28 February 2011 ^ Thomas Jefferson at Find a Grave ^ wiki.monticello.org Jefferson's Cause of Death. Retrieved 2010-06-12. ^ Jefferson Still Survives. Retrieved on 2006-12-26. ^ "Monticello Report: The Calendar and Old Style (O. S.)". Thomas Jefferson Foundation (Monticello.org). 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-08-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20070815182623/http://www.monticello.org/reports/life/old_style.html. Retrieved 2007-09-15.  ^ The initials O.S. are a notation for Old Style and that is a reference to the change of dating that occurred during Jefferson's lifetime from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar under the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750. ^ Robert Shalhope, "Agriculture," in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986) pp 384-98 ^ Barbara McEwan, Thomas Jefferson, farmer (1991) pp 20-39 ^ Ellis, Joseph J. (1994). "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson". Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/. Roberts, Sam (February 21, 2011). "A Founding Father’s Books Turn Up". http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/23/books/23jefferson.html. Retrieved 02-23-2011.  ^ Amy Argetsinger and Roxanne Roberts (January 1, 2007). "But It's Thomas Jefferson's Koran!". Washington Post: p. C03. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/03/AR2007010300075.html. Retrieved January 3, 2007.  ^ Roberts, Sam (February 21, 2011). "A Founding Father’s Books Turn Up". http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/23/books/23jefferson.html. Retrieved 02-23-2011.  ^ "Jefferson's Inventions". Cti.itc.virginia.edu. http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rprojs/jefferson_invent/invent.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.  ^ http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/whiteb1.htm ^ Kevin J. Hayes, The road to Monticello: the life and mind of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford U.P., 2008) pp 135-6 ^ "Inventions of Thomas Jefferson". http://storis63.tripod.com/jefferson2a.html. Retrieved 02-25-2011. Murk (September 6, 2004). "Jefferson Wheel Cipher". http://www.murky.org/blg/2004/09/jefferson-wheel-cipher/. Retrieved 02-25-2011. "Jefferson's Inventions". Cti.itc.virginia.edu. http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rprojs/jefferson_invent/invent.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.  ^ J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975), 533; see also Richard K. Matthews, The Radical Politics of Thomas Jefferson, (1986), p. 17, 139n.16. ^ Donald F. Swanson, "Bank-Notes Will Be But as Oak Leaves": Thomas Jefferson on Paper Money," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1993, Vol. 101 Issue 1, pp 37-52 ^ Letter to Isaac H. Tiffany, April 4, 1819 in Appleby and Ball (1999) p 224. ^ Richard B. Morris, Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny (1973), p. 133 ^ a b c Melton, The Quotable Founding Fathers, 277. ^ Letter to William Smith, November 13, 1787 ^ Avery Dulles, "The Deist Minimum", First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life Issue: 149. (January 2005), pp 25+ ^ April 21, 1803 letter to Benjamin Rush in Bergh, ed., Writings of Thomas Jefferson 10:379 ^ "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth". 1820. http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/JefJesu.html. Retrieved 12-08-2010.  ^ Letter to Horatio Spafford (1814) in J. Jefferson Looney, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series (2011) Volume 7 Page 248 ^ Letter to John Adams (August 15, 1820) ^ a b c d e f g Miller, Robert (July 1, 2008). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Bison Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-0803215986.  ^ a b Drinnon, Richard (March 1997). Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-Hating and Empire-Building. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806129280.  ^ a b Jefferson, Thomas (1803). "President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory,". http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-12.  ^ "Letter From Thomas Jefferson to Alexander von Humboldt December 6, 1813". http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl224.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-12.  ^ Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of extinction: Jeffersonian philanthropy and the American Indian‎ (1974) pp 120–21 ^ James P. Ronda, Thomas Jefferson and the changing West: from conquest to conservation (1997) p. 10; text in Moore, MariJo (2006). Eating Fire, Tasting Blood: An Anthology of the American Indian Holocaust. Running Press. ISBN 978-1560258384. http://books.google.com/?id=3oNPH4-ovFcC&pg=PA208&lpg=PA208&dq=Thomas+Jefferson+dearborn+hatchet.  ^ Scott Stamp Catalog, Index of Commemorative Stamps ^ Merrill D. Peterson, The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), passim. ^ Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003) pp. 118, 134-43 ^ Jeffrey L. Pasley, "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay", Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908 ^ Sean Wilentz, "Book Reviews," Journal of American History Sept. 2010 v. 97# 2 p 476. Wilentz notes that Wood (2009) is quite favorable toward Jefferson. Jefferson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of U.S. presidents. ^ Jackson Fossett, Dr. Judith; Wilkins, Roger; Lewis, Jan; Walker, Clarence E. (June 27, 2004). "Forum: Thomas Jefferson". http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101040705/tjforum.html. Retrieved 03-02-2011.  ^ Cogliano says, "No single issue has contributed as much to the decline of Jefferson's reputation since World War II as the slavery question." Francis D. Cogliano, Thomas Jefferson: reputation and legacy (2006) p. 202 ^ Menzo, Jessica (December, 2001, 2006). "Thomas Jefferson - Introduction". http://www.enotes.com/nineteenth-century-criticism/jefferson-thomas. Retrieved 02-13-2011.  ^ Office of the Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record (HABS/HAER), of the National Park Service, Library of Congress (September 1994). "Documentation of the Jefferson Memorial". http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/dc/dc0400/dc0473/sheet/00001a.tif. Retrieved 2009-09-04.  ^ Scott Stamp Catalog, Index of Commemorative Stamps ^ "New York Times/ABOUT.COM". Coins.about.com. 2007-08-16. http://coins.about.com/od/presidentialdollars/a/jeffersondollar.htm. Retrieved 2010-11-07.  ^ Charles Henry Hart. Browere's life masks of great Americans. Printed at the De Vinne Press for Doubleday and McClure Company, 1899. Google books ^ National Park Service. "Carving History". Mount Rushmore National Memorial. http://www.nps.gov/archive/moru/park_history/carving_hist/carving_history.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-04.  Bibliography Biographical Appleby, Joyce. Thomas Jefferson (2003), short interpretive essay by leading scholar. Bernstein, R. B. Thomas Jefferson. (2003) Well-regarded short biography. Brodie, Fawn McKay. Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History, W.W. Norton, 1974, the "first extensive investigation of the Sally Hemings story". Burstein, Andrew. Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello, New York: Basic Books, 2005 Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis), p. 4 Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason (1988) well-reviewed short biography. Crawford, Alan Pell, Twilight at Monticello, Random House, New York, (2008) Ellis, Joseph. "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson". http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers/mtjessay1.html.  Ellis, Joseph. American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1996). Prize-winning essays; assumes prior reading of his biography. Gordon-Reed, Annette. Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy, Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Press, 1997 (reprint 1998 to include discussion of DNA analysis) Halliday, E. M. (2001, 2002). Understanding Thomas Jefferson. New York, NY: Perennial HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-019793-5.  Hitchens, Christopher (2005). Thomas Jefferson: Author of America , short biography. Malone, Dumas. Jefferson and His Time, 6 vols. (1948–82). Multi-volume biography of TJ by leading expert; A short version is onlinedead link. Onuf, Peter. "The Scholars' Jefferson," William and Mary Quarterly 3d Series, L:4 (October 1993), 671–699. Historiographical review or scholarship about TJ; online through JSTOR at most academic libraries. Padover, Saul K. Jefferson: A Great American's Life and Ideas Peterson, Merrill D. (1975). Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation.  A standard scholarly biography. Peterson, Merrill D. (ed.) Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986), 24 essays by leading scholars on aspects of Jefferson's career. Randall, Henry Stephens (1858). The Life of Thomas Jefferson (volume 1 ed.).  Salgo, Sandor (1997). Thomas Jefferson: Musician and Violinist.  Abook detailing Thomas Jefferson's love of music. Schachner, Nathan (1951). Thomas Jefferson: A Biography.  2 volumes. Scharff, Virginia. The Women Jefferson Loved (2010) Politics and ideas Ackerman, Bruce. The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy. (2005) Adams, Henry. History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America edition 1986) famous 4-volume history Wills, Garry, Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), detailed analysis of Adams' History Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1978) Brown, Stuart Gerry (1954). The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison.  Channing; Edward. The Jeffersonian System: 1801–1811 (1906), "American Nation" survey of political history Dunn, Susan. Jefferson's Second Revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism (2004) Elkins, Stanley and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995) in-depth coverage of politics of 1790s Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." : American Journal of Political Science, 2004 48(3): 429–444. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta, Jstor, and Ebsco Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800.  Finkelman, Paul. Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson (2001), esp ch 6–7 Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. "I Tremble for My Country": Thomas Jefferson and the Virginia Gentry, (University Press of Florida; 206 pages; 2007). Argues that the TJ's critique of his fellow gentry in Virginia masked his own reluctance to change Hitchens, Christopher (2005). Author of America: Thomas Jefferson. HarperCollins.  Horn, James P. P. Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds. The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (2002) 17 essays by scholars Jayne, Allen. Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and Theology (2000); traces TJ's sources and emphasizes his incorporation of Deist theology into the Declaration. Roger G. Kennedy. Mr. Jefferson's Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and the Louisiana Purchase (2003). Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson and the Press: Crucible of Liberty. (2006) Lewis, Jan Ellen, and Onuf, Peter S., eds. Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory, Civic Culture. (1999) McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1987) intellectual history approach to Jefferson's Presidency Matthews, Richard K. "The Radical Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson: An Essay in Retrieval," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XXVIII (2004) Mayer, David N. The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (2000) Miller, Robert (2006). Native America, Discovered and Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780275990114.  Onuf, Peter S., "Every Generation Is An 'Independant Nation': Colonization, Miscegenation and the Fate of Jefferson's Children", William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. LVII, No.1, January 2000, JSTOR Onuf, Peter S. Jefferson's Empire: The Languages of American Nationhood. (2000). Online review Onuf, Peter. "Thomas Jefferson, Federalist" (1993) online journal essay Rahe, Paul A. "Thomas Jefferson's Machiavellian Political Science". Review of Politics 1995 57(3): 449–481. ISSN 0034–6705 Fulltext online at Jstor and Ebsco. Sears, Louis Martin. Jefferson and the Embargo (1927), state by state impact Sloan, Herbert J. Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Debt (1995). Shows the burden of debt in Jefferson's personal finances and political thought. Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic: 1801–1815 (1968). "New American Nation" survey of political and diplomatic history Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. (2005) Tucker, Robert W. and David C. Hendrickson. Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1992), foreign policy Urofsky, Melvin I. "Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall: What Kind of Constitution Shall We Have?" Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 109–125. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco Valsania, Maurizio. "'Our Original Barbarism': Man Vs. Nature in Thomas Jefferson's Moral Experience." Journal of the History of Ideas 2004 65(4): 627–645. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: in Project Muse and Swetswise Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. Jefferson and Education. (2004). Religion Gaustad, Edwin S. Sworn on the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of Thomas Jefferson (2001) Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-0156-0 Sanford, Charles B. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987) University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-1131-1 Sheridan, Eugene R. Jefferson and Religion, preface by Martin Marty, (2001) University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-08-9 Edited by Jackson, Henry E., President, College for Social Engineers, Washington, D. C. The Thomas Jefferson Bible (1923) Copyright Boni and Liveright, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. Arranged by Thomas Jefferson. Translated by R. F. Weymouth. Located in the National Museum, Washington, D. C. Legacy and historiography Cogliano, Francis D. Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy (Edinburgh University Press, 2006) online edition Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993) Onuf, Peter S., ed. (with Jan Ellen Lewis). Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory, and Civic Culture, University Press of Virginia, 1999, Google preview. Perry, Barbara A. "Jefferson's Legacy to the Supreme Court: Freedom of Religion", Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 181–198. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco Pasley, Jeffrey L. "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's Modern Reputation: a Review Essay", Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4): 871–908. Issn: 0022-4642 Fulltext in Ebsco. Peterson, Merrill D. The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), how Americans interpreted and remembered Jefferson Taylor, Jeff. Where Did the Party Go?: William Jennings Bryan, Hubert Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian Legacy (2006), on Jefferson's role in Democratic history and ideology. Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935), analysis of Jefferson's political philosophy "Thomas Jefferson", PBS interviews with 24 historians Primary sources Thomas Jefferson: Writings: Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia / Public and Private Papers / Addresses / Letters (1984, ISBN 978-0-940450-16-5) Library of America edition. There are numerous one-volume collections; this is perhaps the best place to start. Thomas Jefferson, Political Writings ed by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball. Cambridge University Press. 1999 online Lipscomb, Andrew A. and Albert Ellery Bergh, eds. The Writings Of Thomas Jefferson 19 vol. (1907) not as complete nor as accurate as Boyd edition, but covers TJ from birth to death. It is out of copyright, and so is online free. Edwin Morris Betts (editor), Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book, (Thomas Jefferson Memorial: December 1, 1953) ISBN 1-882886-10-0. Letters, notes, and drawings—a journal of plantation management recording his contributions to scientific agriculture, including an experimental farm implementing innovations such as horizontal plowing and crop-rotation, and Jefferson's own moldboard plow. It is a window to slave life, with data on food rations, daily work tasks, and slaves' clothing. The book portrays the industries pursued by enslaved and free workmen, including in the blacksmith's shop and spinning and weaving house. Boyd, Julian P. et al., eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. The definitive multivolume edition; available at major academic libraries. 36 volumes covers TJ to March 1802. The Jefferson Cyclopedia (1900) large collection of TJ quotations arranged by 9000 topics; searchable; copyright has expired and it is online free. The Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827, 27,000 original manuscript documents at the Library of Congress online collection Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia (1787), London: Stockdale. This was Jefferson's only book Shuffelton, Frank, ed., (1998) Penguin Classics paperback: ISBN 0-14-043667-7 Waldstreicher, David, ed., (2002) Palgrave Macmillan hardcover: ISBN 0-312-29428-X online edition Cappon, Lester J., ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters (1959) Howell, Wilbur Samuel, ed. Jefferson's Parliamentary Writings (1988). Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice, written when he was vice-President, with other relevant papers Melton, Buckner F.: The Quotable Founding Fathers, Potomac Books, Washington D.C. (2004). Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826, 3 vols. (1995)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.  External links Listen to this article (3 parts) · (info) Part 1 • Part 2 • Part 3 This audio file was created from a revision of Thomas Jefferson dated 2008-09-02, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles Find more about Thomas Jefferson on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks The Papers of Thomas Jefferson – Digital Edition University of Virginia Jefferson Papers B. L. Rayner's 1829 Life of Thomas Jefferson, an on-line etext "The Hobby of My Old Age": Jefferson's University of Virginia Quotations from Jefferson University of Virginia biography Biography on White House website A collection of photographs of Thomas Jefferson's architecture Library of Congress Library of Congress: Jefferson exhibition Library of Congress: Jefferson timeline Thomas Jefferson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Massachusetts Historical Society Thomas Jefferson Papers: An Electronic Archive This digital collection of Thomas Jefferson manuscripts held by the Massachusetts Historical Society includes the page images and transcriptions of Jefferson's Farm Book and Garden Book, also page images of Jefferson's library catalogs and architectural drawings. National Park Service Thomas Jefferson's Plan for the University of Virginia: Lessons from the Lawn, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan Jefferson Memorial, Washington DC Monticello – Home of Thomas Jefferson Poplar Forest-Thomas Jefferson's second home "Frontline: Jefferson's blood: Chronology: The Sally Hemings story (1977), PBS The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at the Avalon Project Thomas Jefferson at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Notes on the State of Virginia from American Studies at the University of Virginia. Works by Thomas Jefferson at Project Gutenberg Online catalog of Thomas Jefferson's personal library, based on the catalog of books he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815 Works by or about Thomas Jefferson in libraries (WorldCat catalog) The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, for information on TJ's life and times, written and referenced by historians at Monticello Political offices Preceded by Patrick Henry Governor of Virginia 1779–1781 Succeeded by William Fleming Preceded by John Jay as Secretary of Foreign Affairs United States Secretary of State Served under: George Washington 1790–1793 Succeeded by Edmund Randolph Preceded by John Adams Vice President of the United States 1797–1801 Succeeded by Aaron Burr President of the United States 1801–1809 Succeeded by James Madison Diplomatic posts Preceded by Benjamin Franklin United States Minister to France 1785–1789 Succeeded by William Short Party political offices New political party Democratic-Republican nominee for President of the United States 1796¹, 1800, 1804 Succeeded by James Madison Notes and references 1. Prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each Presidential elector would cast two ballots; the highest vote-getter would become President and the runner-up would become Vice President. Thus, in 1796, the Democratic-Republican Party fielded Jefferson as a Presidential candidate, but he came in second and therefore became Vice President. v · d · eSigners of the United States Declaration of Independence J. Adams • S. Adams • Bartlett • Braxton • Carroll • Chase • Clark • Clymer • Ellery • Floyd • Franklin • Gerry • Gwinnett • Hall • Hancock • Harrison • Hart • Hewes • Heyward • Hooper • Hopkins • Hopkinson • Huntington • Jefferson • F. Lee • R. Lee • Lewis • Livingston • Lynch • McKean • Middleton • L. Morris • R. Morris • Morton • Nelson • Paca • Paine • Penn • Read • Rodney • Ross • Rush • Rutledge • Sherman • Smith • Stockton • Stone • Taylor • Thornton • Walton • Whipple • Williams • Wilson • Witherspoon • Wolcott • Wythe v · d · ePresidents of the United States George Washington · John Adams · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · James Monroe · John Quincy Adams · Andrew Jackson · Martin Van Buren · William Henry Harrison · John Tyler · James K. Polk · Zachary Taylor · Millard Fillmore · Franklin Pierce · James Buchanan · Abraham Lincoln · Andrew Johnson · Ulysses S. Grant · Rutherford B. Hayes · James A. Garfield · Chester A. Arthur · Grover Cleveland · Benjamin Harrison · Grover Cleveland · William McKinley · Theodore Roosevelt · William Howard Taft · Woodrow Wilson · Warren G. Harding · Calvin Coolidge · Herbert Hoover · Franklin D. Roosevelt · Harry S. Truman · Dwight D. Eisenhower · John F. Kennedy · Lyndon B. Johnson · Richard Nixon · Gerald Ford · Jimmy Carter · Ronald Reagan · George H. W. Bush · Bill Clinton · George W. Bush · Barack Obama v · d · eVice Presidents of the United States John Adams · Thomas Jefferson · Aaron Burr · George Clinton · Elbridge Gerry · Daniel D. Tompkins · John C. Calhoun · Martin Van Buren · Richard Mentor Johnson · John Tyler · George M. Dallas · Millard Fillmore · William R. King · John C. Breckinridge · Hannibal Hamlin · Andrew Johnson · Schuyler Colfax · Henry Wilson · William A. Wheeler · Chester A. Arthur · Thomas A. Hendricks · Levi P. Morton · Adlai E. Stevenson I · Garret Hobart · Theodore Roosevelt · Charles W. Fairbanks · James S. Sherman · Thomas R. Marshall · Calvin Coolidge · Charles G. Dawes · Charles Curtis · John Nance Garner · Henry A. Wallace · Harry S. Truman · Alben W. Barkley · Richard Nixon · Lyndon B. Johnson · Hubert Humphrey · Spiro Agnew · Gerald Ford · Nelson Rockefeller · Walter Mondale · George H. W. Bush · Dan Quayle · Al Gore · Dick Cheney · Joe Biden v · d · eUnited States Secretary of State Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781–1789 R. Livingston • Jay Secretary of State 1789–present Jefferson • Randolph • Pickering • J. Marshall • Madison • Smith • Monroe • Adams • Clay • Van Buren • E. Livingston • McLane • Forsyth • Webster • Upshur • Calhoun • Buchanan • Clayton • Webster • Everett • Marcy • Cass • Black • Seward • Washburne • Fish • Evarts • Blaine • Frelinghuysen • Bayard • Blaine • Foster • Gresham • Olney • Sherman • Day • Hay • Root • Bacon • Knox • Bryan • Lansing • Colby • Hughes • Kellogg • Stimson • Hull • Stettinius • Byrnes • G Marshall • Acheson • Dulles • Herter • Rusk • Rogers • Kissinger • Vance • Muskie • Haig • Shultz • Baker • Eagleburger • Christopher • Albright • Powell • Rice • Clinton v · d · eGovernors of Virginia Henry · Jefferson · Fleming · Nelson · Harrison · Henry · E. Randolph · B. Randolph · H. Lee · Brooke · Wood · Monroe · Page · Cabell · Tyler Sr. · G. Smith · Monroe · G. Smith · P. Randolph · Barbour · Nicholas · Preston · T. Randolph · Pleasants · Tyler Jr. · Giles · J. Floyd · Tazewell · Robertson · Campbell · Gilmer · Patton · Rutherfoord · Gregory · McDowell · W. "EB" Smith · J.B. Floyd · Johnson · Wise · Letcher · W. "EB" Smith · Pierpont · Wells · Walker · Kemper · Holliday · Cameron · F. Lee · McKinney · O'Ferrall · J.H. Tyler · Montague · Swanson · Mann · Stuart · Davis · Trinkle · Byrd · Pollard · Peery · Price · Darden · Tuck · Battle · Stanley · Almond · A. Harrison · Godwin · Holton · Godwin · Dalton · Robb · Baliles · Wilder · Allen · Gilmore · Warner · Kaine · McDonnell v · d · e United States Ambassadors to France Envoys

Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779 Ministers Plenipotentiary Franklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 · Pinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811 Barlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 · Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush 1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow 1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane 1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Eustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 · Herrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 · Straus 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery 1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 · Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009– v · d · eFigures in the Age of Enlightenment by country or region  Notable figures America (English) Benjamin Franklin · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · Thomas Paine America (Latin) Simón Bolívar  · Eugenio Espejo  · José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi · Servando Teresa de Mier · Francisco de Miranda · Simón Rodríguez England Edward Gibbon · Thomas Hobbes  · Samuel Johnson · Edmund Burke (Irish born)  · John Locke  · Isaac Newton  · Robert Walpole France Montesquieu · François Quesnay · Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Denis Diderot · Helvétius · Jean le Rond d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach · Condorcet · Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Germany Immanuel Kant · Gotthold Ephraim Lessing · Johann Gottfried von Herder · Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn Greece Adamantios Korais · Rigas Feraios · Theophilos Kairis · Eugenios Voulgaris Hungary Ferenc Kazinczy · József Kármán · János Batsányi · Mihály Fazekas Italy Cesare Beccaria · Antonio Genovesi Low Countries Hugo Grotius · Baruch Spinoza · Franciscus van den Enden Poland-Lithuania Stanisław Konarski · Ignacy Krasicki · Hugo Kołłątaj · Stanisław Staszic · Jan Śniadecki · Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz · Jędrzej Śniadecki Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal Russia Mikhail Lomonosov · Ivan Shuvalov · Ivan Betskoy · Ekaterina Dashkova · Nikolay Novikov · Mikhail Shcherbatov · Alexander Radishchev Scandinavia Anders Chydenius · Peter Forsskål · Gustav III · Ludvig Holberg · Arvid Horn · Johan Henric Kellgren · Eggert Ólafsson  · Henrik Gabriel Porthan · Jens Schielderup Sneedorff · Johann Friedrich Struensee · Emanuel Swedenborg Scotland Joseph Black · James Boswell · Robert Burns · Adam Ferguson · Francis Hutcheson · David Hume · James Hutton · Lord Kames · Lord Monboddo · James Macpherson · Thomas Reid · William Robertson · Adam Smith · Dugald Stewart · James Watt Serbia Dositej Obradović Spain Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos · Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio de Ulloa Ukraine Hryhorii Skovoroda · Ivan Kotlyarevsky  Related topics Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Counter-Enlightenment · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah · Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude · Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · Weimar Classicism v · d · eCabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797) Vice President John Adams (1789–1797) Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay (1789) Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy Pickering (1795–1797) Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797) Secretary of War Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James McHenry (1796–1797) Attorney General Edmund Randolph (1789–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles Lee (1795–1797) Postmaster General Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph Habersham (1795–1797) v · d · eCabinet of President John Adams (1797–1801) Vice President Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801) Secretary of State Timothy Pickering (1797–1800) • John Marshall (1800–1801) Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797–1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801) Secretary of War James McHenry (1796–1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800–1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797–1801) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1798–1801) v · d · eCabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) Vice President Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809) Secretary of State James Madison (1801–1809) Secretary of the Treasury Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809) Secretary of War Henry Dearborn (1801–1809) Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge (1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809) Persondata Name Jefferson, Thomas Alternative names Short description American President Date of birth April 13, 1743 Place of birth Albemarle County, Virginia Date of death July 4, 1826 Place of death Charlottesville, Virginia

Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779 Ministers Plenipotentiary Franklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 · Pinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811 Barlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 · Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush 1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow 1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane 1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Eustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 · Herrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 · Straus 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery 1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 · Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009– v · d · eFigures in the Age of Enlightenment by country or region  Notable figures America (English) Benjamin Franklin · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · Thomas Paine America (Latin) Simón Bolívar  · Eugenio Espejo  · José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi · Servando Teresa de Mier · Francisco de Miranda · Simón Rodríguez England Edward Gibbon · Thomas Hobbes  · Samuel Johnson · Edmund Burke (Irish born)  · John Locke  · Isaac Newton  · Robert Walpole France Montesquieu · François Quesnay · Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Denis Diderot · Helvétius · Jean le Rond d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach · Condorcet · Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Germany Immanuel Kant · Gotthold Ephraim Lessing · Johann Gottfried von Herder · Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn Greece Adamantios Korais · Rigas Feraios · Theophilos Kairis · Eugenios Voulgaris Hungary Ferenc Kazinczy · József Kármán · János Batsányi · Mihály Fazekas Italy Cesare Beccaria · Antonio Genovesi Low Countries Hugo Grotius · Baruch Spinoza · Franciscus van den Enden Poland-Lithuania Stanisław Konarski · Ignacy Krasicki · Hugo Kołłątaj · Stanisław Staszic · Jan Śniadecki · Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz · Jędrzej Śniadecki Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal Russia Mikhail Lomonosov · Ivan Shuvalov · Ivan Betskoy · Ekaterina Dashkova · Nikolay Novikov · Mikhail Shcherbatov · Alexander Radishchev Scandinavia Anders Chydenius · Peter Forsskål · Gustav III · Ludvig Holberg · Arvid Horn · Johan Henric Kellgren · Eggert Ólafsson  · Henrik Gabriel Porthan · Jens Schielderup Sneedorff · Johann Friedrich Struensee · Emanuel Swedenborg Scotland Joseph Black · James Boswell · Robert Burns · Adam Ferguson · Francis Hutcheson · David Hume · James Hutton · Lord Kames · Lord Monboddo · James Macpherson · Thomas Reid · William Robertson · Adam Smith · Dugald Stewart · James Watt Serbia Dositej Obradović Spain Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos · Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio de Ulloa Ukraine Hryhorii Skovoroda · Ivan Kotlyarevsky  Related topics Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Counter-Enlightenment · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah · Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude · Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · Weimar Classicism v · d · eCabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797) Vice President John Adams (1789–1797) Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay (1789) Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy Pickering (1795–1797) Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797) Secretary of War Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James McHenry (1796–1797) Attorney General Edmund Randolph (1789–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles Lee (1795–1797) Postmaster General Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph Habersham (1795–1797) v · d · eCabinet of President John Adams (1797–1801) Vice President Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801) Secretary of State Timothy Pickering (1797–1800) • John Marshall (1800–1801) Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797–1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801) Secretary of War James McHenry (1796–1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800–1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797–1801) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1798–1801) v · d · eCabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) Vice President Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809) Secretary of State James Madison (1801–1809) Secretary of the Treasury Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809) Secretary of War Henry Dearborn (1801–1809) Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge (1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809) Persondata Name Jefferson, Thomas Alternative names Short description American President Date of birth April 13, 1743 Place of birth Albemarle County, Virginia Date of death July 4, 1826 Place of death Charlottesville, Virginia

Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779 Ministers Plenipotentiary Franklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 · Pinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811 Barlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 · Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush 1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow 1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane 1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Eustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 · Herrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 · Straus 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery 1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 · Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009– v · d · eFigures in the Age of Enlightenment by country or region  Notable figures America (English) Benjamin Franklin · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · Thomas Paine America (Latin) Simón Bolívar  · Eugenio Espejo  · José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi · Servando Teresa de Mier · Francisco de Miranda · Simón Rodríguez England Edward Gibbon · Thomas Hobbes  · Samuel Johnson · Edmund Burke (Irish born)  · John Locke  · Isaac Newton  · Robert Walpole France Montesquieu · François Quesnay · Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Denis Diderot · Helvétius · Jean le Rond d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach · Condorcet · Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Germany Immanuel Kant · Gotthold Ephraim Lessing · Johann Gottfried von Herder · Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn Greece Adamantios Korais · Rigas Feraios · Theophilos Kairis · Eugenios Voulgaris Hungary Ferenc Kazinczy · József Kármán · János Batsányi · Mihály Fazekas Italy Cesare Beccaria · Antonio Genovesi Low Countries Hugo Grotius · Baruch Spinoza · Franciscus van den Enden Poland-Lithuania Stanisław Konarski · Ignacy Krasicki · Hugo Kołłątaj · Stanisław Staszic · Jan Śniadecki · Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz · Jędrzej Śniadecki Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal Russia Mikhail Lomonosov · Ivan Shuvalov · Ivan Betskoy · Ekaterina Dashkova · Nikolay Novikov · Mikhail Shcherbatov · Alexander Radishchev Scandinavia Anders Chydenius · Peter Forsskål · Gustav III · Ludvig Holberg · Arvid Horn · Johan Henric Kellgren · Eggert Ólafsson  · Henrik Gabriel Porthan · Jens Schielderup Sneedorff · Johann Friedrich Struensee · Emanuel Swedenborg Scotland Joseph Black · James Boswell · Robert Burns · Adam Ferguson · Francis Hutcheson · David Hume · James Hutton · Lord Kames · Lord Monboddo · James Macpherson · Thomas Reid · William Robertson · Adam Smith · Dugald Stewart · James Watt Serbia Dositej Obradović Spain Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos · Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio de Ulloa Ukraine Hryhorii Skovoroda · Ivan Kotlyarevsky  Related topics Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Counter-Enlightenment · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah · Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude · Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · Weimar Classicism v · d · eCabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797) Vice President John Adams (1789–1797) Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay (1789) Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy Pickering (1795–1797) Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797) Secretary of War Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James McHenry (1796–1797) Attorney General Edmund Randolph (1789–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles Lee (1795–1797) Postmaster General Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph Habersham (1795–1797) v · d · eCabinet of President John Adams (1797–1801) Vice President Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801) Secretary of State Timothy Pickering (1797–1800) • John Marshall (1800–1801) Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797–1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801) Secretary of War James McHenry (1796–1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800–1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797–1801) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1798–1801) v · d · eCabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) Vice President Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809) Secretary of State James Madison (1801–1809) Secretary of the Treasury Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809) Secretary of War Henry Dearborn (1801–1809) Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge (1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809) Persondata Name Jefferson, Thomas Alternative names Short description American President Date of birth April 13, 1743 Place of birth Albemarle County, Virginia Date of death July 4, 1826 Place of death Charlottesville, Virginia

Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779 Ministers Plenipotentiary Franklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 · Pinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811 Barlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 · Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush 1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow 1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane 1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Eustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 · Herrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 · Straus 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery 1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 · Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009– v · d · eFigures in the Age of Enlightenment by country or region  Notable figures America (English) Benjamin Franklin · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · Thomas Paine America (Latin) Simón Bolívar  · Eugenio Espejo  · José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi · Servando Teresa de Mier · Francisco de Miranda · Simón Rodríguez England Edward Gibbon · Thomas Hobbes  · Samuel Johnson · Edmund Burke (Irish born)  · John Locke  · Isaac Newton  · Robert Walpole France Montesquieu · François Quesnay · Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Denis Diderot · Helvétius · Jean le Rond d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach · Condorcet · Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Germany Immanuel Kant · Gotthold Ephraim Lessing · Johann Gottfried von Herder · Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn Greece Adamantios Korais · Rigas Feraios · Theophilos Kairis · Eugenios Voulgaris Hungary Ferenc Kazinczy · József Kármán · János Batsányi · Mihály Fazekas Italy Cesare Beccaria · Antonio Genovesi Low Countries Hugo Grotius · Baruch Spinoza · Franciscus van den Enden Poland-Lithuania Stanisław Konarski · Ignacy Krasicki · Hugo Kołłątaj · Stanisław Staszic · Jan Śniadecki · Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz · Jędrzej Śniadecki Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal Russia Mikhail Lomonosov · Ivan Shuvalov · Ivan Betskoy · Ekaterina Dashkova · Nikolay Novikov · Mikhail Shcherbatov · Alexander Radishchev Scandinavia Anders Chydenius · Peter Forsskål · Gustav III · Ludvig Holberg · Arvid Horn · Johan Henric Kellgren · Eggert Ólafsson  · Henrik Gabriel Porthan · Jens Schielderup Sneedorff · Johann Friedrich Struensee · Emanuel Swedenborg Scotland Joseph Black · James Boswell · Robert Burns · Adam Ferguson · Francis Hutcheson · David Hume · James Hutton · Lord Kames · Lord Monboddo · James Macpherson · Thomas Reid · William Robertson · Adam Smith · Dugald Stewart · James Watt Serbia Dositej Obradović Spain Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos · Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio de Ulloa Ukraine Hryhorii Skovoroda · Ivan Kotlyarevsky  Related topics Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Counter-Enlightenment · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah · Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude · Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · Weimar Classicism v · d · eCabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797) Vice President John Adams (1789–1797) Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay (1789) Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy Pickering (1795–1797) Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797) Secretary of War Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James McHenry (1796–1797) Attorney General Edmund Randolph (1789–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles Lee (1795–1797) Postmaster General Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph Habersham (1795–1797) v · d · eCabinet of President John Adams (1797–1801) Vice President Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801) Secretary of State Timothy Pickering (1797–1800) • John Marshall (1800–1801) Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797–1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801) Secretary of War James McHenry (1796–1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800–1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797–1801) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1798–1801) v · d · eCabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) Vice President Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809) Secretary of State James Madison (1801–1809) Secretary of the Treasury Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809) Secretary of War Henry Dearborn (1801–1809) Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge (1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809) Persondata Name Jefferson, Thomas Alternative names Short description American President Date of birth April 13, 1743 Place of birth Albemarle County, Virginia Date of death July 4, 1826 Place of death Charlottesville, Virginia

Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779 Ministers Plenipotentiary Franklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 · Pinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811 Barlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15 Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 · Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush 1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow 1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane 1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93 Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Eustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 · Herrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 · Straus 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery 1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 · Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009– v · d · eFigures in the Age of Enlightenment by country or region  Notable figures America (English) Benjamin Franklin · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · Thomas Paine America (Latin) Simón Bolívar  · Eugenio Espejo  · José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi · Servando Teresa de Mier · Francisco de Miranda · Simón Rodríguez England Edward Gibbon · Thomas Hobbes  · Samuel Johnson · Edmund Burke (Irish born)  · John Locke  · Isaac Newton  · Robert Walpole France Montesquieu · François Quesnay · Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques Rousseau · Denis Diderot · Helvétius · Jean le Rond d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach · Condorcet · Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Germany Immanuel Kant · Gotthold Ephraim Lessing · Johann Gottfried von Herder · Johann Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn Greece Adamantios Korais · Rigas Feraios · Theophilos Kairis · Eugenios Voulgaris Hungary Ferenc Kazinczy · József Kármán · János Batsányi · Mihály Fazekas Italy Cesare Beccaria · Antonio Genovesi Low Countries Hugo Grotius · Baruch Spinoza · Franciscus van den Enden Poland-Lithuania Stanisław Konarski · Ignacy Krasicki · Hugo Kołłątaj · Stanisław Staszic · Jan Śniadecki · Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz · Jędrzej Śniadecki Portugal Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal Russia Mikhail Lomonosov · Ivan Shuvalov · Ivan Betskoy · Ekaterina Dashkova · Nikolay Novikov · Mikhail Shcherbatov · Alexander Radishchev Scandinavia Anders Chydenius · Peter Forsskål · Gustav III · Ludvig Holberg · Arvid Horn · Johan Henric Kellgren · Eggert Ólafsson  · Henrik Gabriel Porthan · Jens Schielderup Sneedorff · Johann Friedrich Struensee · Emanuel Swedenborg Scotland Joseph Black · James Boswell · Robert Burns · Adam Ferguson · Francis Hutcheson · David Hume · James Hutton · Lord Kames · Lord Monboddo · James Macpherson · Thomas Reid · William Robertson · Adam Smith · Dugald Stewart · James Watt Serbia Dositej Obradović Spain Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos · Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio de Ulloa Ukraine Hryhorii Skovoroda · Ivan Kotlyarevsky  Related topics Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Counter-Enlightenment · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah · Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude · Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · Weimar Classicism v · d · eCabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797) Vice President John Adams (1789–1797) Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay (1789) Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy Pickering (1795–1797) Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797) Secretary of War Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James McHenry (1796–1797) Attorney General Edmund Randolph (1789–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles Lee (1795–1797) Postmaster General Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph Habersham (1795–1797) v · d · eCabinet of President John Adams (1797–1801) Vice President Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801) Secretary of State Timothy Pickering (1797–1800) • John Marshall (1800–1801) Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797–1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801) Secretary of War James McHenry (1796–1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800–1801) Attorney General Charles Lee (1797–1801) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1798–1801) v · d · eCabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) Vice President Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809) Secretary of State James Madison (1801–1809) Secretary of the Treasury Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809) Secretary of War Henry Dearborn (1801–1809) Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge (1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809) Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809) Persondata Name Jefferson, Thomas Alternative names Short description American President Date of birth April 13, 1743 Place of birth Albemarle County, Virginia Date of death July 4, 1826 Place of death Charlottesville, Virginia