Coordinates: 41°53′33″N 12°29′09″E / 41.892534°N 12.485715°E / 41.892534; 12.485715 This article concerns the main forum of ancient Rome. See also Imperial fora and Other fora in Rome for lesser fora and see Forum (Roman) for this type of ancient public square. Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) Structures Tabularium, Gemonian stairs, Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vespasian and Titus, Arch of Septimius Severus, Curia, Rostra Augusti, Basilica Aemilia, Forum Main Square, Basilica Iulia, Temple of Caesar, Regia, Temple of Castor and Pollux, Temple of Vesta Imperial Comitium Curia Julia, Rostra Augusti, Umbilicus Urbi, Milliarium Aureum, Lapis Niger, The Roman Forum is the oldest part of the city of Rome. v · d · e Artist's rendering of the Roman Forum as it may have appeared during the Empire These articles cover the Ancient Roman Comitium and Forum of the Republican and Imperial periods The Roman Forum (Latin: Forum Romanum, Italian: Foro Romano) is a small open rectangle surrounded by the ruins of ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this marketplace as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum. It was for centuries the center of Roman public life: the site of triumphal processions and elections, venue for public speeches and gladiatorial matches, and nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated the city's great men. The teeming heart of ancient Rome, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history.1 Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archeological excavations attracting numerous sightseers. Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The Kingdom's earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the the ancient former royal residence, the Regia (both 8th century BC), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins, both of which were rebuilt after the rise of imperial Rome. Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic's formal Comitium. This is where the Senate — as well as Republican government itself — began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area. Over time the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BC). Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia, along with the new Curia Julia, refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever greater numbers.

Eventually much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of Trajan's Forum (110 AD), these activities transferred to the Basilica Ulpia. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the division of the Empire into its Eastern and Western halves, as well as the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last major expansion of the Forum complex. This returned the political center to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later. Contents 1 Description 2 History 2.1 Kingdom 2.2 Republic 2.3 Empire 2.4 Medieval 2.5 Excavation and preservation 2.6 The site today 3 The monuments 3.1 Existing (or reconstructed) ruins 3.2 Vanished (or almost vanished) structures 4 Other fora in Rome 5 See also 6 References 7 External links 7.1 Comprehensive sites 7.2 Primarily visual // Description Map of the Roman Forum, from Samuel Ball Platner's The Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome (1904) (altered for clarity) Unlike the later imperial fora in Rome — which were self-consciously modeled on the ancient Greek plateia (πλατεία) public plaza or town square — the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically and piecemeal over many centuries.2 (This is so despite the tidying up of men like Sulla, Caesar and Augustus who attempted, with some success, to impose a degree of order there.) By the Imperial period the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters. Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the Capitoline Hill to that of the Velian Hill. The Forum's basilicas during the Imperial period — the Basilica Aemilia on the north and the Basilica Julia on the south — defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square, the buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the Forum Adjectum) extending southeast as far as the Arch of Titus.3 Originally the site of the Forum had been marshy ground, which was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima. Because of its location, sediments from both the flooding of the Tiber River and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising the level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early Republican times. As the ground around buildings began to rise, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus. Excavations in the 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 meters above sea level. Archaeological finds show human activity at that level with the discovery of carbonised wood.

An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as Triumphs. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate (Porta Triumphalis) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the Velian Hill down the Via Sacra and into the Forum. From here they would mount the Capitoline Rise (Clivus Capitolinus) up to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum.4 (In addition to the Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by a number of storied roads and streets, including the Vicus Jugarius, Vicus Tuscus, Argiletum, and Via Nova.) History Kingdom The area of the Forum was originally a grassy wetland. It was drained in the 7th century BC by building the Cloaca Maxima, a large covered sewer system that emptied into the Tiber River, as more people began to settle between the two hills. According to tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between Romulus, the first king of Rome controlling the Palatine Hill, and his rival, Titus Tatius who occupied the Capitoline Hill. Accordingly, an alliance formed after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the Comitium. It was here at the Vulcanal that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance.5 The Forum was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined.6 The original Forum began as an open air market near the Comitium, but outgrew its day to day shopping and marketplace needs. As politics, judicial matters and trials began to take up more and more space, fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities around them. The second king, Numa Pompilius, is said to have begun the cult of Vesta, building its house and temple as well as the Regia as the city's first royal palace. Later Tullus Hostilius enclosed the Comitium around the old Etruscan temple where the senate would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted the temple into the Curia Hostilia close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC Tarquinius Priscus had the area paved for the first time. Republic Original archeology sketch of the forum.

During the Republican period the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city of Rome.7 However, in order to create space, as well as a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding both the Forum and Comitium by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the Forum.8 The 5th century BC witnessed the construction of the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The Temple of Concord was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus. A long held tradition of speaking from the elevated speakers' Rostra — originally facing north towards the Senate House to the politicians and assembled elite — put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum behind the Comitium. A tribune known as Caius Licinius (consul in 361 BC) was supposed to have been the first to turn away from the Roman elite towards the people in the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by Gaius Gracchus.9 This began the tradition of locus popularis, in which even young nobles were expected to speak from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the mos maiorum ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. The Basilica Aemilia was another Republican structure that had several names after its initial dedication on the north side of the Forum in 179 BC. Many of the traditions from the Comitium such as the popular assemblies, funerals of the nobility and games were transferred to the Forum as it developed.10 In 78 BC, the Tabularium (Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus. In 63 BC, Cicero delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator Catiline at the Forum (in the Temple of Concord, whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were lead to their deaths at the Tullianum, the nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans.11 Over time the Comitium was lost to the ever-growing Curia and to Julius Caesar's rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC. That year two supremely dramatic events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: Marc Antony's funeral oration for Caesar (immortalized in Shakespeare's famous play) was delivered from the partially completed speaker's platform known as the New Rostra and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the Temple to the Deified Caesar was subsequently built by his great-nephew Octavius (Augustus).12 Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy Cicero there.

The close relationship between the Comitium and the Forum Romanum eventually faded from the writings of the ancients. The former is last mentioned in the reign of Septimus Severus. Empire After Julius Caesar's death, and the end of the subsequent Civil Wars, Augustus finished his great-uncle's work of giving the Forum its final form. This included defining the southeastern end of the plaza by constructing the Temple of Divus Iulius and the Arch of Augustus there (both in 29 BC). Augustus is said to have stated "I found Rome a city of brick, and left it a city of marble". What is true is that he continued the building projects of his predecessor and began many of his own directly in the Forum. During early Imperial times much economic and judicial business transferred away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of Trajan's Forum (110 AD), these activities transferred to the Basilica Ulpia. This section requires expansion. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the division of the Empire into its Eastern and Western halves, as well as the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last major expansion of the Forum complex. This returned the political center to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later. Medieval Rome: Ruins of the Forum, Looking towards the Capitol (1742) by Canaletto In the 5th century the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. By the 8th century the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of the abandoned and ruined temples.13 An anonymous 8th century traveler from Einsiedeln (now in Switzerland) reported that the Forum was already falling apart in his time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the Forum Romanum persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum. After the 8th century the structures of the Forum were dismantled, re-arranged and used to build feudal towers and castles within the local area. In the 13th century these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level.14 The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse. Excavation and preservation This section requires expansion.

Artists from the late 15th century drew the ruins in the Forum, antiquaries copied inscriptions in the 16th century, and a tentative excavation was begun in the late 18th century. A cardinal took measures to drain it again and built the Alessandrine neighborhood over it. But the excavation by Carlo Fea, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803, and archaeologists under the Napoleonic regime marked the beginning of clearing the Forum, which was only fully excavated in the early 20th century. Remains from several centuries are shown together, due to the Roman practice of building over earlier ruins. The site today This section requires expansion. Today, archeological excavations continue along with constant restoration and preservation. Long a major tourist destination in the city, the Forum is open for foot traffic along the ancient Roman streets which are restored to the late Imperial level. The Forum Museum (Antiquarium Forense) is found at the Colosseum end of a modern road, the Via dei Fori Imperiali. This little museum has a significant collection of sculpture and architectural fragments. There are also reconstructions of the Forum and the nearby Imperial Fora as well as a short video in several languages. It is entered from the Forum by the side of Santa Francesca Romana (No. 53 Piazza S. Maria Nova) and is open from 08:30 to one hour before sunset. Admission is free. In 2008 heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding the "Black Stone" marble together over the Vulcanal. The Forum Romanum. View facing North East from above the Portico Dii Consentes. The monuments Existing (or reconstructed) ruins Many of the Forum's temples date to the periods of the Kingdom and the Republic, although most were destroyed and rebuilt several times. The ruins within the Forum clearly show how urban spaces were used during the Roman age. The Forum presently includes a modern statue of Julius Caesar and the following major monuments, buildings, and ancient ruins: Temples Temple Date built Builder Location within Forum Temple of Castor and Pollux 494 BC Aulus Postumius Albinus South side, east of the Basilica Julia Temple of Saturn 501 BC Tarquinius Superbus South side, west of the Basilica Julia Temple of Vesta 7th century BC Numa Pompilius South east corner, next to the Temple of Castor and Pollux Temple of Venus and Roma 135 Hadrian Late Imperial forum expansion to the farthest east of the Regia, Directly across from the Colosseum Temple of Antoninus and Faustina 141 Antoninus Pius North side, east of the Basilica Aemilia Temple of Caesar 29 BC Augustus East side, west of the Regia Temple of Vespasian and Titus 79 Titus and Domitian West edge below the Tabularium South of the Temple of Concord and north of the Portico Dii Consentes Temple of Romulus 309 Maxentius Shrine of Venus Cloacina Temple of Divus Romulus 309 Maxentius

Basilicas Basilica Aemilia Basilica Julia Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine Arches Arch of Septimius Severus Arch of Titus Government buildings or official residences Regia, originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. Curia Julia (later reconstruction by Diocletian), the site of the Roman Senate. Tabularium, the records office of Rome. Portico Dii Consentes ("Portico of the Harmonious Gods") Atrium Vestae, the house of the Vestal Virgins. Tullianum, the prison used to hold various foreign leaders and generals. Smaller monuments Rostra, from where politicians made their speeches to the Roman citizens. Umbilicus Urbi, the designated centre of the city from which and to which all distances in Rome and the Roman Empire were measured. Milliarium Aureum After Augustus erected this monument, all roads were considered to begin here and all distances in the Roman Empire were measured relative to that point. Column of Phocas, the last monument built within the Forum. Lapis Niger ("Black Stone"), a very ancient shrine which was obscure even to the Romans. Pools, springs The Lacus Curtius, the site of a mysterious pool venerated by Romans even after they had forgotten what it signified. The Lacus Iuturnae ("Spring of Juturna"), a healing pool where Castor and Pollux were said to have watered their horses Roads, streets, staircases Gemonian stairssteps situated in the central part of Rome, leading from the Arx of the Capitoline Hill down to the Roman Forum. Clivus Capitolinus was the street that started at the Arch of Tiberius, wound around the Temple of Saturn, and ended at Capitoline Hill. Via Sacra, the famous processional street of Roman Triumphs; linked the Atrium Vestae with the Colosseum. Vicus Jugarius ("Street of the Yoke-Makers") Vanished (or almost vanished) structures Arch of Augustus Arch of Fabius Arch of Tiberius Basilica Fulvia, replaced by the Basilica Aemilia in 179 BC Basilica Paulli Basilica Opimia Basilica Porcia Basilica Sempronia, replaced by the Basilica Julia in 46 BC Curia Hostilia (c. 560 BC-c. 80 BC), original meeting place of the Senate Curia Cornelia (c. 80 BC-c. 50 BC), subsequent meeting place of the Senate (replaced by the Curia Julia) Golden House of Nero (Domus Aurea) Graecostasis Office of the Scribes and Heralds of the Aediles Pool of Servilius (Lacus Servilius), near the Basilica Julia; Sulla displayed heads of executed Senators there Shrine of Faustina the Younger Shrine of Vulcan (Vulcanal) Statue of Attus Navius Statue of Constantine the Great Statue of Domitian Statue of Tremulus Statue of Vertumnus Temple of Augustus Temple of Bacchus Temple of Concord Temple of Janus Tribunal of Aurelius Tribunal of the City Praetor (Praetor Urbanus) Tribunal of the Praetor for Foreigners (Praetor Peregrinus) Well-head of Libo (Puteal Libonus or Scribonianum) Statues of numerous other gods and men Other fora in Rome See also: Category:Forums of Rome

Other fora existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are a number of large imperial fora forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the Forum Iulium, Forum Augustum, the Forum Transitorium (also: Forum Nerva), and Trajan's Forum. The planners of the Mussolini era removed most of the Medieval and Baroque strata and built the Via dei Fori Imperiali road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There is also: The Forum Boarium, dedicated to the commerce of cattle, between the Palatine Hill and the river Tiber, The Forum Holitorium, dedicated to the commerce of herbs and vegetables, between the Capitoline Hill and the Servian walls, The Forum Piscarium, dedicated to the commerce of fish, between the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, in the area of the current Roman Ghetto, The Forum Suarium, dedicated to the commerce of pork, near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the campus Martius, The Forum Vinarium, dedicated to the commerce of wine, in the area now of the "quartiere" Testaccio, between Aventine Hill and the Tiber. Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on the function of the sites. Among these, the Forum cuppedinis, was known as a general market for many goods. See also Ancient Rome portal Tarpeian Rock, a traditional execution site overlooking the Roman Forum References Citations ^ Grant, Michael (1970), The Roman Forum, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson; Photos by Werner Forman, pg 11. ^ Watkin, David (2009). The Roman Forum. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.. ISBN 9780674033412. http://books.google.com/books?id=MGoOoAcg43gC. Retrieved 6 March 2010. , pg 22. ^ Grant, Op. cit., pg 43. ^ Grant, Op. cit., pg 16. ^ Marucchi, Horace (1906). The Roman Forum and the Palatine According to the Latest Discoveries. Paris: Lefebvre. pp. 1–2.  ^ Parker, John Henry (1881). The Architectural History of the City of Rome. Oxford: Parker and Company. p. 122.  ^ Vasaly, Ann (1996). Representations: Images of the World in Ciceronian Oratory. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-520-07755-5.  ^ Young, Norwood, ed. (1908). Handbook for Rome and the Campagna. London: John Murray. p. 95.  ^ Beard, Mary; North, John A.; Price, Simon (1998). Religions of Rome: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 109 (note 139). ISBN 0-521-30401-6.  ^ Baedeker, Karl (1903). Italy: Handbook for Travellers. Leipzig: Karl Baedeker. p. 251.  ^ Watkin, Op. cit., pg 79. ^ Grant, Op. cit., pp 111-112. ^ Marucchi, Op. cit., pg 9. ^ Goodyear, W. H. (1899). Roman and Medieval Art. New York: Macmillan. p. 109.  External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Roman Forum Comprehensive sites Digital Roman Forum, 3D reconstructions of the Roman Forum in ca. 400 Christian Hülsen: The Roman Forum (at LacusCurtius; Hülsen was one of the principal excavators of the Forum) Primarily visual A two-part documentary offering a virtual tour of the north side of the Forum QTVR fullscreen of Roman Forum by Tolomeus "Aerial view of Roman Forum". Google Maps. http://maps.google.com?q=rome,+italy&ll=41.892374,12.485533&spn=0.005023,0.008664&t=h&hl=en. Retrieved 2005-10-14.  Forum Romanum (photo archive) Images of the Forum Romanum Map of the Forum in AD 100, blank or labelled The Roman Forum from the Campidoglio 3D reconstructions movie of the Roman Forum in 5th century A.D. The Roman Forum of 179 AD

v · d · eMonuments of Rome Basilicas of Rome Catacombs of Rome · San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane · Basilica di San Clemente · Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore · Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls · Basilica of St. John Lateran · Chiesa del Gesù · The Roman Ghetto · Santa Croce in Gerusalemme · Santa Maria degli Angeli · Santa Maria in Aracoeli · Santa Maria in Cosmedin · Santa Maria in Trastevere · Santa Prassede · Santa Sabina · St. Peter's Basilica · Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza · Sistine Chapel Roman villas Villa Ada · Villa Borghese · Villa Doria Pamphili · Villa Medici Roman temples Pantheon · Temple of Castor and Pollux · Temple of Portunus · Temple of Hercules Victor · Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill) · Temple of Saturn · Temple of Vesta Roman architecture Ara Pacis · Castel Sant'Angelo · Circus Maximus · Colosseum · Column of Marcus Aurelius · Largo di Torre Argentina · Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II · Obelisks · Palazzo Barberini · Theatre of Marcellus · Theatre of Pompey · Tiber Island · Trajan's Column · Mausoleum of Augustus · Trevi Fountain · Baths of Caracalla · Aurelian Walls · Servian Wall · Palazzo Farnese · Piazza Navona · Pyramid of Cestius · Spanish Steps · Torre delle Milizie · Comitium · Roman forum · Trajan's Market Roman art Apollo Belvedere · Augustus of Prima Porta · La Bocca della Verità · Laocoön and His Sons Seven hills of Rome Aventine Hill · Caelian Hill · Capitoline Hill · Esquiline Hill · Palatine Hill · Quirinal Hill · Viminal Hill

v · d · eMonuments of Rome Basilicas of Rome Catacombs of Rome · San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane · Basilica di San Clemente · Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore · Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls · Basilica of St. John Lateran · Chiesa del Gesù · The Roman Ghetto · Santa Croce in Gerusalemme · Santa Maria degli Angeli · Santa Maria in Aracoeli · Santa Maria in Cosmedin · Santa Maria in Trastevere · Santa Prassede · Santa Sabina · St. Peter's Basilica · Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza · Sistine Chapel Roman villas Villa Ada · Villa Borghese · Villa Doria Pamphili · Villa Medici Roman temples Pantheon · Temple of Castor and Pollux · Temple of Portunus · Temple of Hercules Victor · Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill) · Temple of Saturn · Temple of Vesta Roman architecture Ara Pacis · Castel Sant'Angelo · Circus Maximus · Colosseum · Column of Marcus Aurelius · Largo di Torre Argentina · Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II · Obelisks · Palazzo Barberini · Theatre of Marcellus · Theatre of Pompey · Tiber Island · Trajan's Column · Mausoleum of Augustus · Trevi Fountain · Baths of Caracalla · Aurelian Walls · Servian Wall · Palazzo Farnese · Piazza Navona · Pyramid of Cestius · Spanish Steps · Torre delle Milizie · Comitium · Roman forum · Trajan's Market Roman art Apollo Belvedere · Augustus of Prima Porta · La Bocca della Verità · Laocoön and His Sons Seven hills of Rome Aventine Hill · Caelian Hill · Capitoline Hill · Esquiline Hill · Palatine Hill · Quirinal Hill · Viminal Hill