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Meritocracy, in the first, most administrative sense, is a system of government or other administration (such as business administration) wherein appointments are made and responsibilities assigned to individuals based upon their "merits", namely intelligence, credentials, and education,1 determined through evaluations or examinations. Although meritocracy as a term is a relatively recent invention, the concept originates from the works Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and independently in the works of Han Feizi and Confucius, along with other Legalist and Confucian philosophers. The first Chinese meritocracy was implemented in the 2nd century BC, by the Han Dynasty, which introduced civil service exams evaluating the "merit" of officials.2 Meritocracy itself is not a form of government, but rather an ideology. Meritocracy itself is frequently confused as being a type of government, rather than correctly as a methodology or factor used in or for, the appointment of individuals to government. Individuals appointed to a meritocracy are judged based upon certain merits which could range from intelligence to morality to general aptitude to specific knowledge. A criticism of this methodology is that 3 "merit" itself is a highly subjective term, potentially lacking in clarity and therefore open to misuse. Meritocracy in its wider sense can be any general act of judgment upon the basis of people's various demonstrated merits; such acts are frequently described in sociology and psychology. Thus the merits may extend beyond intelligence and education to any mental or physical talent or to work ethic. In rhetoric, the demonstration of one's merit regarding mastery of a particular subject is an essential task most directly related to the Aristotelian term Ethos. The equivalent Aristotelian conception of meritocracy is based upon aristocratic or oligarchical structures rather than in the context of the modern state.45

The most common form of meritocratic screening found today is the college degree. Higher education is an imperfect meritocratic screening system for various reasons, such as lack of uniform standards worldwide, 6 7, lack of scope (not all occupations and processes are included), and lack of access (some talented people never have an opportunity to participate because of the expense, most especially in developing countries). 8 The issuance of degrees in and of itself is not a true meritocratic guarantee, but it is a screening and preparatory process that aids in meritocratic choices.citation needed Contents 1 Origin of term 2 Social Darwinism 3 Historical examples 3.1 Han Feizi 3.2 Genghis Khan 3.3 Napoleon 4 Meritocratic states 4.1 Singapore 4.2 Venetian Republic 5 Computing 5.1 Meritocracy Online 5.2 Open Source 6 Criticism 7 See also 8 Notes 9 External links Origin of term The term itself was defined by British politician and sociologist, Michael Young in his 1958 satirical essay,19101112 "The Rise of the Meritocracy", which pictured the United Kingdom under the rule of a government favouring intelligence and aptitude (merit) above all. The essay is written in the first-person by a fictional historical narrator in 2032, and interweaves history from the politics of pre- and post-war Britain with those of fictional future events in the short (1960 onwards) and long term (2020 onwards).13 The essay itself was based upon the tendency of the then-current governments in their striving towards intelligence to ignore shortcomings and upon the failure of education systems to correctly utilize gifted and talented members within their civilizations.14 Young's fictional narrator explains that, on the one hand, the greatest contributor to society is not the "stolid mass" or majority, but the "creative minority" or "restless elite".15 On the other hand, he claims that there are casualties of progress whose influence is underestimated and that, from such stolid adherence to natural science and intelligence, arises arrogance and complacency.15 This problem is encapsulated in the phrase "Every selection of one is a rejection of many".15 Social Darwinism Main article: Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is a social theory which holds that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is a model, not only for the development of biological traits in a population, but also as an application for human social institutions — the existing social institutions being implicitly declared as normative. Social Darwinism was at its most popular from the late 19th century to the end of World War II. Proponents of Social Darwinism argue that the theory justifies social inequality as being meritocratic. Darwin himself only ventured to propound his theories in a biological sense, and it is other thinkers and theorists who have applied Darwin's model to unequal endowments of human ambition. Historical examples This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2010) Han Feizi In addition to Confucius, another ancient Chinese philosopher of the same period (that of the Warring States) advocated a meritocratic system of government and society. This was Han Feizi who was famous as the foremost proponent of the School of Law, otherwise known as the philosophy of Legalism. This had, as its central tenet, the absolute rule of law, but also contained numerous meritocratic elements. Another Legalist, Shang Yang implemented Legalist and meritocratic reforms in the state of Qin by abolishing the aristocracy and promoting individuals based on their skill, intelligence, and initiative. This led to the armies of the Qin gaining a critical edge over the other nations that adhered to old aristocratic systems of government. Legalism, along with its pro-meritocratic ideals, remained a key part of Chinese philosophy and politics for another two millennia, although after the Qin Dynasty it was heavily diluted. But meritocratic governance within the bureaucracy remains a key stone of Chinese government all the way to the present. This can be most clearly seen in the use of standardized "imperial examinations" to determine entry into the official class, which began in the Sui Dynasty. Genghis Khan

Meritocracy was the primary basis for selection of chiefs and generals in the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan chose whomever was talented and fit for his military chain of command. He even trusted generals and soldiers from opponents' armies if they showed loyalty to their leaders. For example, Genghis Khan's general Jebe had been an enemy soldier who had shot Genghis in battle before he became Great Khan. Napoleon Napoleonic (Revolutionary) France is considered to have been meritocratic. After the revolution of 1789 most members of the former elite had been removed. When Napoleon rose to power in 1799, there was no ancient base from which to draw his staff, and he had to choose the people he thought best for the job, including officers from his army, revolutionaries who had been in the National Assembly, and even some former aristocrats such as prime minister Talleyrand. This policy was summed up in Bonaparte's often-quoted phrase "La carrière ouverte aux talents", careers open to the talented, or as more freely translated by Thomas Carlyle, "the tools to him that can handle them". A clear example is the order of the Légion d'honneur, the first order of merit, admitting men of any class. They were judged not by ancestry or wealth but by military, scientific or artistic prowess. Meritocratic states Singapore Singapore describes meritocracy as one of its official guiding principles for domestic public policy formulation, placing emphasis on academic credentials as objective measures of merit.16 It separated from Malaysia in 1965 after the federal Malaysian government insisted on giving special privileges to the Malays as part of their "birthright" as an "indigenous" people. Political leaders in Singapore argued instead for the equality of all citizens, with places in universities, government contracts, political appointments, etc., going to the most deserving candidates, rather than to those chosen on the basis of connections or ethnic background. This dispute between State and Federal governments proved irreconcilable; Singapore therefore became an independent city-state separate from Malaysia.

There is criticism that, under this system, Singaporean society is being increasingly stratified and that an elite class is being created from a narrow segment of the population.17 Commentators have also criticized the city-state for not applying the meritocracy principle uniformly, citing the example of the allegedly disproportionate influence and presence of the family of the founding prime minister Lee Kuan Yew in political and business circles. Although most agree that Singapore's economic success has been due in part to its strong emphasis on developing and promoting talented leaders, there are signs that an increasing number believe that it is instead becoming an elitist society.18 Defendants recall the ancient Chinese proverb 'Wealth does not pass three generations', suggesting that elitists will eventually be, and often are, replaced by those lower down the hierarchy. Indeed, many top political leaders in Singapore come from peasant backgrounds, while modern peasants boast about their great ancestry.citation needed Venetian Republic Lasting 1,112 years, the Republic of Venice at times used a system based on meritocracy to decide the membership of its ruling council. Each year, citizens were assessed based on the number of merit points earned through their successes — in academia, with works or art, in business ventures, and so on — and the top names were appointed to the council. The council's role was legislative, judicial and executive, and it elected a Doge, on the understanding that any councillor who voted to appoint a Doge who later took Venice to war and lost would, along with that Doge, be put to death.citation needed In practice, however, a relatively small number of influential families usually provided the bulk of the council nominees year after year. Computing Meritocracy Online “ The great thing about the internet is it is a meritocracy and it's free. ” —Damian Kulash, OK Go, 19

Although formal meritocracies are uncommon online, informal ones are quite prevalent. They often occur in online games such as MMORPGs where the best players are more likely to become guild leaders or be otherwise influential,20 although the ability to invest large amounts of time and/or money is also important. This is also the case for many discussion forums, since the most knowledgeable users often have better chances of becoming moderators. Further, due to the nature of online interaction, where identity and anonymity are more readily managed than in direct interaction, the effects of social inequity can often be discounted in online communities. Intelligence, effort, education, and personality may be readily conveyed in an online interaction but a person's gender, race, religion, and social standing can be easily obfuscated or left entirely unaddressed. Open Source There is a tendency, in the structure of open source projects, for a meritocracy to arise. Technically, the more proficient the developer is in contributing towards the project - developing new features or maintaining existing code - the more they are required or the more the project necessitates their contribution, and thus the more senior their informal position becomes. Those who contribute more code, and have more of an effect on the direction or status of the project, will tend to have more seniority and influence. The Apache Software Foundation and the Mozilla Foundation are examples of (open source) organizations which officially claim to be meritocracies.21 22 Criticism Meritocracy has been criticized as a myth which merely serves to justify the status quo, or "lip service to equality"23; merit can always be defined as whatever results in success. In the words of sociologist Laurie Taylor23: “The hideous thing about meritocracy is it tells you that if you’ve given life your all and haven’t got to the top you’re thick or stupid. Previously, at least, you could always just blame the class system.”

The concept of meritocracy can also be seen negatively when an action's merit lacks consensus or when behaviors that many consider undesirable are rewarded. See also Equality of opportunity vs Equality of outcome Equality before the law Jedem das Seine Meritocracy in China Merit (Buddhism) Criticism: Functionalism (sociology) Differential Education Achievement Notes ^ a b Young, Michael (1958). The rise of the meritocracy, 1870-2033: An essay on education and inequality. London: Thames & Hudson. OCLC 3943639.  ^ Caasey, Wilson. Firsts: Origins of Everyday Things That Changed the World. Penguin Books. ISBN 9781592579242.  ^ Arrow, Bowles and Durlauf — Meritocracy and Economic Inequality, (Princeton,1999) ^ Aristot. Pol. 2.1261b ^ Aristotle, (351 BCE) Politics. Book Three Part IV. (Jowett, B., Trans) ^ What's College For?: The Struggle To Define American Higher Education; Zachary Karabell; ISBN 9780465091522 ^ Journal of College Teaching & Learning – May 2008 Volume 5, Number 5 AACSB Accreditation ^ Higher Education and Social Justice Andy Furlong, Fred Cartmel ISBN: 9780335223626 ^ Young, Michael (29 June 2001). "Down with meritocracy: The man who coined the word four decades ago wishes Tony Blair would stop using it". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2001/jun/29/comment.  ^ Ford, Boris (1992). The Cambridge cultural history of Britain. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 9780521428897.  ^ Kamolnick, Paul (2005). The just meritocracy: IQ, class mobility, and American social policy. Westport CT: Praeger. p. 87. ISBN 9780275979225.  ^ Best, Shaun (2005). Understanding Social Divisions. London: Sage. p. 32. ISBN 9780761942962.  ^ Young, Michael (1958). p. 11. ^ Young, Michael (1958). p. 13. ^ a b c Young, Michael (1958). p. 15. ^ Speech by Singapore Ambassador to France, 28 August 2008. ^ Ngiam Tong Dow (28 October 2006). "Singapore's elites". Little Speck. http://www.littlespeck.com/content/politics/CTrendsPolitics-061028.htm.  ^ "Please, get out of my elite uncaring face". Tomorrow, Bulletin of Singapore Bloggers. 20 October 2006. http://tomorrow.sg/archives/2006/10/19/please_get_out_of_my_elite_uncar_1.html.  ^ "Behind OK Go's viral video". CBC News. 26 April 2010. http://www.cbc.ca/arts/music/story/2010/04/26/ok-go-video.html.  ^ BBC - h2g2 - The Politics of Internet Discussion ^ How the ASF works - The Apache Software Foundation ^ http://www.mozilla.org/about/governance.html Mozilla Governance ^ a b Duffy, Jonathan (23 November 2004). "The rise of the meritocracy". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4035181.stm.  External links Look up meritocracy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. "Meritocracy and the Erosion of Self-Respect", lecture by Sjalling Swierstra und Evelien H. Tonkens (with a german introduction) World Wide Words — Michael Quinion writes about the changing use of the term, as does Progress Online