Not to be confused with Konkani dialect (Marathi). Konkani कोंकणी, Konknni, ಕೊಂಕಣಿ, കൊങ്കണി Pronunciation kõkɵɳi (standard), kõkɳi (popular) Spoken in India Region Konkan, includes the state of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and some parts of Kerala Konkani is also spoken in Kenya,1 Uganda, Pakistan, Persian Gulf,2 Lisbon in Portugal Total speakers 3.6 million Ranking 123 Language family Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Southern Zone Konkani Konkani Writing system Devanagari (official),3 Roman,4 Kannada,5 Malayalam and Arabic Official status Official language in Goa, India Regulated by Various academies and the Government of Goa6 Language codes ISO 639-1 None ISO 639-2 kok ISO 639-3 gom Linguasphere – Distribution of native Konkani speakers in India This page contains Indic text. Without rendering support you may see irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts. More... Konkani (Devanāgarī: कोंकणी, Kōṅkaṇī, Roman script: Konknni, Kannada script: ಕೊಂಕಣಿ, Malayalam script: കൊങ്കണി) is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages spoken in the Konkan coast of India. It has approximately 3.6 million speakers. Most of the linguists have classified Konkani languages as part of southern group of Indo-Aryan languages, most closely related to Marathi within this group. Whereas linguists like George Cardona classify Konkani as one of the Western Indo-Aryan languages, others being Gujarati, Rajasthani etc. Konkani has retained ergative construction like the western Indo-Aryan languages. Konkani is the official language in the Indian state of Goa and is also one of the official languages of India. Devanagari has been mandated as the official script. Though Konkani does not have a unique script, scripts of the other languages native to the regions its speakers inhabit are used. Konkani has the distinction of having the first printed grammar among Indian languages.7 Konkani also has a good tradition in literature and dance. Contents 1 Geographical distribution 2 History 2.1 Origins 2.1.1 Etymology 2.1.2 Roots 2.1.3 Substratum 2.2 Development 2.2.1 Sumerian influence 2.2.2 Kannada Influence 2.2.3 Konkani and Gujarati 2.2.4 Other foreign languages 2.2.5 Portuguese era Konkani 2.2.5.1 Migration and fragmentation of Konkani speakers 2.3 Early epigraphy 2.4 Konkani revival 2.5 Post-independence period 2.6 Recognition as an independent language 2.7 Official language status 2.8 Exonyms 2.9 An example of old Konkani vernacular in early native literature 3 Structure 3.1 Phonology 3.2 Vowels 3.3 Consonants 4 Grammar 4.1 Sanskritisation 5 Scripts 5.1 Past 5.2 Present 5.2.1 Alphabet or the Varṇamāḷha 6 Dialects 7 Problems/issues 7.1 Multilingualism 7.2 Konkani–Marathi dispute 7.3 Script and dialect issues 8 Organisations 9 Literature 10 Media in Konkani 10.1 Broadcast media 10.1.1 Radio 11 Miscellanea 12 See also 13 References 14 External links Geographical distribution Modern day Goan Konkani in Nāgarī script The Konkani language is spoken widely in the Western Coastal region of India known as Konkan. This consists of the Konkan division of Maharashtra, the state of Goa, and the Uttara Kannada (formerly North Canara), Shimoga, Udupi and Dakshina Kannada (formerly South Canara) districts of Karnataka, together with many districts in Kerala(Kasargod,Kochi,Alappuzha,Trivandrum,Kottayam etc). Each region has a different dialect, pronunciation style, vocabulary, tone and sometimes, significant differences in grammar.8 The Census Department of India, 1991 figures put the number of Konkani speakers in India as 1,760,607 making up 0.21% of India's population. Out of these, 602,606 were in Goa, 706,397 in Karnataka, 312,618 in Maharashtra and 64,008 in Kerala.9 It ranks 15th in the list of Scheduled Languages by strength. According to the 2001 estimates of The Census Department of India, there are 2,489,015 Konkani speakers in India.10 A very large number of Konkanis live outside India, either as expatriates or citizens of other countries (NRIs). Determining their numbers is difficult. Ethnologue puts the number of Konkani speakers at 3.6 million in 2000.11 A significant number of Konkani speakers are found in Kenya and Uganda, Pakistan, Persian Gulf and Portugal. During Portuguese rule many Goans had migrated to these countries. Many families still continue to speak different dialects that their ancestors spoke, which are now highly influenced by the native languages.12 History Origins Etymology The word Konkani is said to have originated from the word Kunkaṇā (which gave birth to the modern word Konkan), the name of a narrow strip of land between the Sahyadri mountain range and the Arabian sea.12 This word may have been derived from the language that was spoken by groups of proto-Australoid people who inhabited the land before the advent of the group of people who spoke Indo-Aryan dialects .13 The language spoken by this tribe may have been akin to Mundari. Many words of proto-Australoid origin are still found in Konkani, e.g.: Goy, Kūḍ, Kumeri, Tānti, Khop.12 Roots Several waves of Indo-Aryan dialect speakers have occurred in the history of Goa. Around 2400 BC the first wave of Indo-aryans dialect speakers might have occurred, and the second wave in the period 1000-700 BC came and settled in Goa.14 Most of them spoke Indo-Aryan Prakrit vernacular languages, akin to Vedic Sanskrit. Thus Konkani was born as a confluence of the Indo-Aryan dialects while accepting many words from the proto-Australoid speech. Proto-Konkani born out of Shauraseni vernacular prakrit at the earlier stage of the evolution and later Maharashtri prakrit, commonly spoken until 875 CE at its later phase ultimately developed into Apabhramsha which could be called as predecessor old Konkani.15 Goa was ruled by the Mauryas and the Bhojaa,as a result numerous migrations occurred from North-east and Western India as a result. Immigrants spoke various vernaculars,which led to an admixture of features of Eastern and Western Prakrits. It was substantially influenced later by Magadhi Prakrit16 and the overtones of Pali17 (the liturgical language of the Buddhists) that played a very important role in development of Konkani Apabhramsha grammar and vocabulary.15 A major number of linguistic innovations in Konkani are shared with Eastern Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali, Oriya which have its roots in Magadhi.18

Maharashtri was the official language of the Satavahana Empire who ruled Goa and Konkan in the early centuries of the Common Era. Under the patronage of the Satavahana Empire, Maharashtri became the most widespread Prakrit of its time. Studying early Maharashtri compilations many linguists have called Konkani as the first-born daughter of Maharashtri.19 This old language that was prevalent contemporary to old Marathi is found to be distinct from its counterpart.19 The Sauraseni impact on Konkani is not so prominent than that of Maharashtri. Very few Konkani words are found to follow the Sauraseni pattern. Konkani forms are rather more akin to Pali than the corresponding Sauraseni forms.20 The major Sauraseni influence on Konkani, is the ao sound found at the end of many nouns in Sauraseni, which becomes o or u in Konkani,21 e.g.: dando, suno, raakhano and dukh, rukhu, manisu from prakrit dandao, sunnao, rakkhakao, dukkhao, vukkhao or vrukkhao, mannisso respectively. Another example could be the sound of ण in the beginning of the words, is still retained in many Konkani words as in archaic Shauraseni. E.g.: णव nine. This form of old Konkani is referred to as Paishachi apabhramsha by some linguists.12 This progenitor of Konkani or Paishachi apabhramsha has preserved an older form of phonetic and grammatic development showing greater variety of verbal forms found in Sanskrit and larger number of grammatical forms that are not found in Marathi, examples of which are found in many works like Dnyaneshwari, and Leela Charitra.17 The language is endowed with overall Sanskrit complexity and grammatical structure, that developed a lexical fund of its own.17 The following table illustrates how modern Konkani words have been derived from Prakrit and Sanskrit22 Origin of few Konkani words: Konkani Prakrit Sanskrit बोकडो bokado (goat) बक्करो bakkaro बर्कर barkara विंचु vicchu (scorpion) विच्छुओ vicchuo वृश्चिक vrischika भाव bhav (brother) भाओ bhao भ्राता bhrata शेत shet (field) छेत्त chett क्षेत्र kshetra घावो ghavo घाओ ghao घात ghata कांटो kanto (thorn) कंटओ kantao कंटक kantaka माथें mathe (head) मथ्थओ matthao मस्तक mastaka न्हंय nhay (river) णई nayee नदी nadi Source:The Koṅkaṇî language and literature by Joseph Gerson Cunha, pages: 5022 Similarly many Sanskrit loan words or Tatsama, are used as they were, e.g.: Vaat (road), Udaka (water), Marga (path), Nisani (ladder), Sarini (broom), Tandul (rice) and many more.22 Substratum Language panel on an Indian banknote, depicting Konkani, sixth from top The Proto-Australoids also known as Shabars23 who are believed to have come from the west, once formed the aboriginal population of Goa and Konkan. Gaudes, Kunbis, Mahars of Konkan today are supposed to be the modern representatives of Proto-Australoids.22 Many Konkani words related to agriculture find their roots in Proto-Australoid dialects, e.g.: kumeri, mer, zonn, khazzan. The later settlers of Goa viz. the Mediterraneans also exerted an impact on this language.Some of there people can be collectively called the Dravidians.24 Words like tandul, narikel or naall, dholl, madval and others have Dravidian origin. Development Sumerian influence The Sumerians had trade contacts with India dating from 2100 BC. Many Sumerians settled in Goa and Konkan, arriving by sea. The period of Sumerian migration started about 2000 BC, after the first wave of Indo-Aryan speakers settled in Goa.14 The advent of the Sumerians had a great impact on Goan social and community life, and on the language. Many local customs were modified.25 A group of Phoenician Sumerian seafarers came to Goa around 1775 BC, influencing their customs by intermixing with the natives.26 Goan anthropologist and historian Ananta Rāmakṛṣṇa Śeṇavī Dhume claims that Goan Śeṭs are descendants of ancient Sumerian colonists.14 The Sumerians are credited with introduction of temple building and the village communities known as the Comunidade, which are not found elsewhere in India. 27 Sumerian cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Goa. Dhume gives many examples of how Sumerian language influenced the native Goan tongue and how the language still retains many Sumerian features and words. Kannada Influence Though it belongs to Indo-Aryan group, Konkani was influenced by Kannada, a member of Dravidian family. The Kadambas who ruled Goa for a long period had their roots in Karnataka thus Konkani was not used for official purposes generally and did not receive royal patronage for some time.28 Another reason Kannada influence on Konkani is proximity of original Konkani speaking territory to Karnataka.29 Old Konkani documents show considerable Kannada influence on grammar as well as the vocabulary. Like southern Dravidian languages Konkani has prothetic glides y- and w-.30 Kannada influence is more evident in Konkani syntax. The question markers in yes/no questions and the negative marker are sentence final.30 Copula deletion in Konkani is remarkably similar to Kannada.30 Phrasal verbs are not so commonly used in Indo-Aryan languages, Konkani spoken in Dravidian regions has however borrowed numerous phrasal verb patterns.31 The table below illustrates some phrasal verbs used in Konkani: Phrasal verbs Konkani in Goa and North Karnataka Konkani in South Karnataka Meaning bas or basun sod baisa sit down randh or randhun ghe randhun sodi cook karun ghe kornu dhi to get something done Konkani and Gujarati It is said that Gujarat has got many historical ties with the port of Goa, mainly because of trade, and it is also said that many people have migrated to Goa via the port of Dwaraka. The Kols, Kharwas, Yadavas, and the Lothal migrants settled in Goa during the pre-historic and the later period. Chavada, a tribe of warriors(now known as Chaddi or Chaddo), migrated to Goa from Saurashtra,during 7th and 8th century CE, after their kingdom was destroyed by the Arabs in 740 AD.32 Royal matrimonial relationships between the two states,and the trade relationships had a major impact on Goan society which greatly influenced the language as a whole. Konkani and Gujarati have many words in common, not found in Marathi.33 Konkani O (as opposed to Marathi A which is of different Prakrit origin), is similar to that in Gujarati.33 The case terminations in Konkani lo, li, le, and Gujarati no, ni, ne have same Prakrit roots.33 In both the languages the present indicatives have no gender, unlike Marathi.33 Other foreign languages

Goa being a major centre for trade was visited by Arabs, Turks since early times. Thus many Arabic and Persian words infiltrated into Konkani language.29 Portuguese era Konkani Early in the era of Portuguese colonisation, Catholic missionaries (particularly the Jesuits) realized the importance of propagating in local tongues and translated Christian Literature into Konkani and sometimes Marathi, the most notable among them being Fr Thomas Stephens. The Italian Jesuit Giovanni Pietro Maffei's study on the language resulted in his publishing a Konkani grammar. He deeply regretted the neglected state of the language, for he saw it as a rich and beautiful language, far more perfect in his opinion than many European languages.34 This changed, however, in face of the repeated Maratha onslaughts of the late 17th and earlier 18th centuries, which for the first time posed a serious threat to Goa and by extension, the Portuguese presence in India itself.35 In stark contrast to the earlier intense study of Konkani and it's cultivation of the earlier century undertaken by the Portuguese priests as a communication medium in their quest for converts, the Goa Inquisition brought about xenophobic measures intended at isolating new converts from the non-Christian populations.35 The Maratha threat, compounded by their religious zeal led the Portuguese authorities to initiate a positive programme for the suppression of Konkani in Goa.35 As a result, the ancient language of Konkani was suppressed and rendered unprivileged by the enforcement of Portuguese.36 Urged by the Fransiscans, the Portuguese viceroy forbade the use of Konkani on June 27, 1684 and further decreed that within three years, the local people in general would speak the Portuguese tongue and use it in all their contacts and contracts made in Portuguese territories. The penalties for it's violation would be imprisonment. The decree was confirmed by the king on March 17, 1687.35 However, according to the Inquisitor Antonio Amaral Coutinho's letter to the king in 1731, these draconian measures did not meet with success. “ The first and the principal cause of this so lamentable a ruin (perdition of souls) is the non-observance of the law of His Most Serene Lord Dom Sebastião, of glorious memory, and of the Goan Councils, which forbids to the natives of the country to speak in their idiom, compelling them to speak only in the Portuguese language. ” 35 With the fall of the "Province of the North" (which included (Bassein, Chaul and Salsette) in 1739, the assault on Konkani gained new momentum.35 On November 21, 1745, Archbishop Lourenzo de Santa Maria decreed that in order to qualify for priesthood, the knowledge of, and the ability to speak only in Portuguese, not only for the pretendentes, but also for all the close relations, men as well as women, confirmed by rigorous examinations by reverend persons was an essential prerequisite.35 Furthermore, the Bamonns and Chardos were required to learn Portuguese within six months, failing which they would be denied the right to marriage.35 The Jesuits, who had historically been the greatest advocates of Konkani, were expelled in 1761. In 1812, the Archbishop decreed that children should be prohibited from speaking Konkani in schools and in 1847, this was extended to seminaries. In 1869, Konkani was completely banned in schools.35 The result of this linguistic displacement was that Goans did not develop a literature in Konkani, nor could the language unite the population as several scripts (including Roman, Devanagari and Kannada) were used to write it.36 Konkani became the lingua de criados (language of the servants)37 as Hindu and Catholic elites turned to Marathi and Portuguese respectively. Ironically, Konkani is at present the ‘cement’ that binds all Goan Catholics across caste, religion and class and is affectionately termed Konkani Mai (Mother Konkani).36 The language only received official recognition in 1987, when on the February of that year, the Indian government recognized Konkani as the official language of Goa.38 The Hindus of Goa had been using Marathi as a language of religious ceremonies from a long time. Also the interaction between Marathis and Konkanis in the past, that had resulted in Konkanis being bilingual with Marathi, now cemented the status of Marathi as the liturgical and literary language of Hindus in Goa, including Konkanis.39 Similarly, upper class Christians used Konkani only to communicate with the lower classes and poor, using Portuguese in social gatherings. The use of Portuguese led to the influence of Portuguese in Konkani, especially in the dialects spoken by the Christians.39 Meanwhile, the migrant communities outside Goa kept Konkani alive, and the language became more fragmented. The Devanagari script came into use in Maharashtra, while Kannada Script was used by migrants to Karnataka. Migrants in Kerala use Malayalam script, except Kasaragod district where Kannada script is used. Migration and fragmentation of Konkani speakers The arrival of the Portuguese led to major changes in Konkani. The conversion of Konkanis to Christianity and the religious policies of the Portuguese caused a large number of Konkanis to flee to neighbouring territories. The isolation of Hindu and Christian Konkanis added to the fragmentation of Konkani into multiple dialects. The language spread to Canara (coastal Karnataka), Kokan-patta (coastal Konkan division of Maharashtra) and Kerala during the last 500 years due to migration of Konkanis. Although a few Konkanis may have been present in the neighbouring areas and there may have been migrations due to economic reasons in the past, the main cause of migration was the Portuguese control over Goa. It was spread to these areas by Hindu Konkani and Christian Konkani speakers in three waves of migration. The first migration occurred during the early years of Portuguese rule and the Inquisition of 1560s. The second wave of migration was during the 1571 C.E. war with the Sultan of Bijapur. The third wave of migration happened during the wars of 1683–1740 A.D. with the Marathas. While the first wave was mostly of Hindus, the second and third waves were mainly those of Christians. These migrant communities grew in relative isolation and each developed its own dialect. Since these communities had to interact with others in local languages on a daily basis, Konkani dialects show strong local influences in terms of script, vocabulary and also style.

Other Konkani communities came into being with their own dialects of Konkani. The Konkani Muslim communities of Ratnagiri and Bhatkal came about due to a mixture of intermarriage of Arab seafarers and locals as well as conversions of Hindus to Islam.40 Another migrant community that picked up Konkani was the Siddis who were sailor-warriors from Ethiopia.41 Early epigraphy The earliest inscription in Konkani found in the village of Aravalem, in Goa dated back in the Gupta period in Brahmi script, ascribed to the 2nd Century AD. It reads: “ Shachipurachya Shiraasi ” on the top of Shacipura.12 In the whole inscription only this sentence is legible.12 The script is late Brahmi. Another inscription in Devanagari, of Shilahara King Aaparditya of the year 1166 AD says:12 “ आत्तां जो कोंणुयिरे शासनोंळपीं तेच्या वेढ्यात देवाची भाल सक्तुम्बी आपडें तेची मांय गाढवें ” which could be transliterated as Ata tu jo konuyyre shasnolpi techya vedyanth devachi bhal sakutmbi apadem, techi may gadhavem The inscription found at Shravanabelagola mentions: “ Chavundaraje karaviyale, gangaraje sutatale karaviyale ” Chamundaraja got it done, Gangaraja got it done all around12 The above inscription has been quite controversial, and touted as being old-Marathi. But the distinctive instrumental viyalem ending of the verb is the hallmark of Konkani language, and the verb sutatale or sutatalap is not prevalent in Marathi. So linguists and historians such as S.B. Kulkarni of Nagpur University, Dr V.P. Chavan (former vice-president of the Anthropological society of Mumbai), and others have thus concluded that it is Konkani.17 Konkani Inscription with ‘Maee Shenvi’ of 1413 AD, Nagueshi, Goa. However, most of the other stone and copper-plate inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan are written in an amalgam of Konkani and old-Marathi, written in Nagari as well as Goy-kanadi script. The grammar and the base of such texts is in Konkani, whereas very few verbs are in Marathi.42 One such stone inscription or shilalekh is found at the Nageshi temple in Goa (dating back to the year 1463 AD) mentions that the (then) ruler of Goa, Devaraja Gominam, had gifted land to the Nagueshi Maharudra temple when Nanjanna Gosavi was the religious head or the Pratihasta of the state. It mentions words like, kullgga,kulaagra, naralel, tambavem, tilel.43 Konkani revival Shenoi Goembab, respected as a pioneer of modern Konkani literature and a figurehead for Konkani unity Madhav Manjunath Shanbhag Konkani was in a sorry state, due to the use of Portuguese as the official and social language among the Christians; the predominance of Marathi over Konkani among Hindus and the Konkani Christian-Hindu divide. Seeing this Vaman Raghunath Varde Valaulikar set about on a mission to unite all Konkanis, Hindus as well as Christians, regardless of caste or religion. He saw this movement not just as a nationalistic movement against Portuguese rule, but also against the pre-eminence of Marathi over Konkani. Almost single handedly he crusaded, writing a number of works in Konkani. He is regarded as the pioneer of modern Konkani literature and affectionately remembered as Shenoi Goembab.44 His death anniversary, 9 April, is celebrated as World Konkani Day (Viswa Konknni Dis).45 Madhav Manjunath Shanbhag an advocate by profession from Karwar, who with a few like-minded companions travelled in all the Konkani speaking areas, seeking to unite the fragmented Konkani community under the banner of ‘one language, one script, one literature’. He succeeded in organizing the first All India Konkani Parishad in Karwar in 193946 Post-independence period Following India's Independence and its subsequent reconquest of Goa in 1961, Goa was absorbed into the Indian Union as a Union Territory, directly under central administration. However, with the reorganization of states along linguistic lines, and growing calls from Maharashtra, as well as Marathis in Goa for the merger of Goa into Maharashtra, an intense debate was started in Goa. The main issues discussed were the status of Konkani as an independent language and Goa's future as a part of Maharashtra or as an independent state. A plebiscite retained Goa as an independent state in 1967.44 However, English, Hindi and Marathi continued to be the preferred languages for official communication, while Konkani was sidelined.47 Recognition as an independent language With the continued insistence of some Marathis that Konkani was a dialect of Marathi and not an independent language, the matter was finally placed before the Sahitya Akademi. Suniti Kumar Chatterji, the president of the Akademi appointed a Committee of linguistic experts to settle the dispute. On February 26, 1975, the Committee after due deliberation, came to the conclusion that Konkani was indeed an independent and literary language with it being classified as an Indo-European language which in its present state is heavily influenced by the Portuguese language. Official language status All this did not change anything in Goa. Finally fed up with the delay, Konkani lovers launched an agitation demanding official status to Konkani in 1986. The agitation turned violent in various places, resulting in the death of six agitators. Finally, on 4 February 1987, the Goa Legislative Assembly passed the Official Language Bill making Konkani the Official Language of Goa.47 Konkani was included in the Eight Schedule of the Constitution of India, as per the Seventy-First Amendment on 31 August 1992, adding it to the list of National Languages. Exonyms Konkani was commonly referred to as lingua canarim by the Portuguese.48 It was also known as lingua brahmana by the Catholic missionaries.48 Portuguese later started referring to Konkani as Lingua Concanim.48 An example of old Konkani vernacular in early native literature Following is a piece of hym dedicated to lord Narayana attributed to 12th century AD:49 “ Jāṇe rasātalāvantu maccharupen vedu hāḍiyele manuśivāk veniyele to saṃsārsāgar tāraṇu maho to rākho nārāyaṇu ” Translation: The one who brought the Vedas up from the ocean in the form of a fish, from the bottoms of the water and offered it to Manu, he is the one Saviour of the world, that is Narayana my God. From later 16th century:49 “ Vaikuṇṭhāce jhāḍ tu ge phal amṛtāce jivit rākhile tuve mānaskulāce ”

Translation: You are the tree from the paradise,the fruit of nectar you protected the life of entire mankind. Structure Phonology The Konkani language has 16 basic vowels (excluding equal number of long vowels), 36 consonants, 5 semi-vowels, 3 sibilants, 1 aspirate and many diphthongs. Like the other Indo-Aryan languages, it has both long and short vowels and syllables with long vowels may appear to be stressed. Different types of nasal vowels are a special feature of the Konkani language.20 The palatal and alveolar stops are affricates. The palatal glides are truly palatal but other the consonants in the palatal column are alveopalatal.50 The voiced/voiceless contrasts is found only in the stops and affricates. The affricates are all voiceless and the sonorants are all voiced.50 The initial vowel-syllable is shortened after the aspirates and the fricatives. Many speakers substitute unaspirated consonants for aspirates.50 Aspirates in non-initial position are rare and only occur in careful speech. Palatalisation/non palatisation is found in all Obstruents, except for palatal and alveolars. Where a palatalised alveolar is expected, a palatal is found instead. In case of sonorants, only unaspirated consonants show this contrast, and among the glides inly labeo-velar glides exhibit this. Vowels show a contrast between oral and nasal ones50 Vowels Vowels in Konkani language One of the most distinguishing features of Konkani phonology is the use of ɵ, the close-mid central vowel, instead of the schwa as used in Hindi and Marathi. Whereas most Indian languages use only one of the three front vowels, represented by the Devanagari grapheme ए (IPA:e), Konkani uses three: e, ɛ and æ. Nasalizations exist for all vowels except for ʌ. Consonants Consonants   Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Alveopalatal Velar Glottal Voiceless stops p pʰ t̪ t̪ʰ   ʈ ʈʰ cɕ cɕʰ k kʰ   Voiced stops b bʱ d̪ d̪ʱ   ɖ ɖʱ ɟʝ ɟʝʱ ɡ ɡʱ   Voiceless fricatives     s   ɕ   h Nasals m mʱ n̪ n̪ʱ   ɳ ɳʱ ɲ ŋ   Liquids ʋ ʋʱ   l ɾ lʱ ɾʱ ɭ ɽ j     The consonants in Konkani are similar to those in Marathi. Grammar Konkani grammar has an overall Sanskrit structure and is similar to other Indo-Aryan languages. Notably Konkani grammar is also influenced by Dravidian languages too. Konkani is a language rich in morphology, syntax. It cannot be described as a stress language nor as a tone language.9 Konkani vocabulary is made of tatsama (Sanskrit words without change), tadhbhava (adapted Sanskrit words), deshya (indigenous words) and antardeshya or foreign words. Speech can be classified in any of the following parts:51 naam (noun) sarvanaam (pronoun) visheshan (adjective) kriyapad (verb) kriyavisheshana (adverb) ubhayanvayi avyaya shabdayogi avyaya kevalaprayogi avyaya Almost all the verbs, adverbs, adjectives and the avyayas are either tatsama or tadbhava.51 The following table illustrates it: Verbs and their roots: Konkani verbs Sanskrit/Prakrit Root Translation वाच vaach (tatsama) वच् vach read आफय, आपय aafay, aapay (tatsama) आव्हय् aavhay call, summon रांध raandh (tatsama) रांध् raandh cook बरय baray (tadbhav) वर्णय् varnay write व्हर vhar (tadbhav) हर har take away भक bhak (tadbhav) भक्ष् bhaksh eat हेड hedd (tadbhav) अट् att roam ल्हेव lhev (tadbhav) लेह् leh lick शीन sheen (tadbhav) छिन्न chinna cut Source:Koṅkaṇî Dhatukosh51 Present indefinite of the auxiliary is fused with present participle of the primary verb, and the auxiliary is partially dropped.51 The southern dialects when came in contact with Dravidian languages this difference became more prominent in dialects spoken in Karnataka whereas Goan Konkani still retains the original form. e.g.: I eat and I am eating sound similar in Goan Konkani, due to loss of auxiliary in colloquial speech. hāv khātā corresponds to I am eating. On the other hand in Karnataka Konkani hāv khātā corresponds to I eat, and hāv khātoāsā or hāv khāter āsā means I am eating. Unlike Sanskrit anusvara has great importance in Konkani. A characteristic of Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, Konkani still retains the anusvara on the initial or the final syllable.51 Similarly visarga, is totally lost and is assimilated with उ and/or ओ; e.g. Sanskrit दीपः becomes दिवो and दुःख becomes दुख . Like other languages it has three genders, use of neuter gender is quite unique in Konkani. During the Middle Ages most of the Indo-Aryan languages lost their neuter gender, except Maharashtri, which is very much retained in Konkani than Marathi.51 Gender in Konkani is purely grammatical and unconnected to sex.51 Out of eight grammatical casess, Konkani has totally lost the dative, the locative, and the ablative.51 It has partially lost the accusative and the instrumental cases too.51 So the preserved cases are: the nominative, the genitive and the vocative case.51 Konkani retains the pitch accent which is a direct derivative of Vedic accent which probabaly would account for nasalism in Konkani.51Breathed accent is retained in most of the tatsamas than the tadbhavas.51Declension also affects the accent.51 Konkani has lost passive voice and now the transitive verbs in their perfects are equivalent to passives. Konkani has rejected ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ, ष, क्ष and are assimilated with र, ख, ह, श and स.51 Sanskrit compound letters are avoided in Konkani; e.g. Sanskrit द्वे, प्राय, गृहस्थ, उद्योत become बे, पिराय, गिरेस्त, उज्जो respectively in Konkani.51 Sanskritisation Konkani is not highly Sanskritised like Marathi, but it still retains Prakrit and apabhramsha structure, verbal forms and vocabulary. Though Goan Hindu dialect is highly Prakritsed, numerous Sanskrit loan words are found unlike the Catholic dialect which was influenced by Portuguese as they got converted in early 16th century. The catholic literary dialect has now adopted Sanskrit vocabulary again, the Catholic Church has also adopted Sanskritisation policy.50 Even though recently introduced Sanskritic vocabulary is difficult and unfamiliar to the new catholic generations, they have not revolted.50 On the other hand, southern Konkani dialects, having been influenced by Kannada, which is one of the most sanskritised language of Dravidian origin, have undergone re-sanskritisation in the due course of time.50 Scripts

Konkani is written in five scripts – Devanagari, Roman, Kannada, Malayalam and Perso-Arabic. Of these, the Roman script probably has the oldest known literary tradition beginning from the 16th century. The use of Devanagari for Konkani, which is now its official script, was first made in 1678.39 Past Main article: Goykanadi Brahmi script was originally used but fell into disuse.20 A script called as Kandevi or Goykandi was used in Goa since the times of the Kadambas, although it lost its popularity after 17th century. Kandevi/Goykandi is very different from the Halekannada script, with strikingly similar features.52 Unlike Halekannada, Kandevi/Goykandi letters were usually written with a distinctive horizontal bar, like the Nagari scripts.This script may have been evolved out of Kadamba script which was extensively used in Goa and Konkan. The earliest documents written in this script is found in a petition addressed by Ravala Śeṭī; most probably a Gaunkar of Caraim in the islands of Goa, to the king of Portugal. This 15th century document bears signature in Konkani which says: Ravala Śeṭī baraha ( Translation: writing of Ravala Śeṭī).53 Present The Goan Hindus use the Devanagari script in their writings while the Goan Catholics use the Roman script. The Saraswats of Karnataka use the Devanagari script in the North Kanara district, but the Kannada script in Udupi and South Kanara. The Karnataka Christians use the Kannada script. The Malayalam script was used by the Konkani community in Kerala, but now there is a move to use the Devanagari script.30 Konkani Muslims around Bhatkal taluka of Karnataka use Arabic script to write Konkani.39 Alphabet or the Varṇamāḷha The vowels,consonants and their arrangement are:54 अ a /ɐ/ आ ā /ɑː/ इ i /i/ ई ī /iː/ उ u /u/ ऊ ū /uː/ ए e /eː/ ऐ ai /aːi/ ओ o /oː/ औ au /aːu/ अं aṃ /ⁿ/ अः aḥ /h/ क ka /k/ ख kha /kʰ/ ग ga /ɡ/ घ gha /ɡʱ/ ङ ṅa /ŋ/ च ca /c, t͡ʃ/ छ cha /cʰ, t͡ʃʰ/ ज ja /ɟ, d͡ʒ/ झ jha /ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/ ञ ña /ɲ/ ट ṭa /ʈ/ ठ ṭha /ʈʰ/ ड ḍa /ɖ/ ढ ḍha /ɖʱ/ ण ṇa /ɳ/ त ta /t̪/ थ tha /t̪ʰ/ द da /d̪/ ध dha /d̪ʱ/ न na /n/ प pa /p/ फ pha /pʰ/ ब ba /b/ भ bha /bʱ/ म ma /m/ य ya /j/ र ra /r/ ल la /l/ व va /ʋ/ ष ṣa /ʂ/ श śa /ɕ, ʃ/ स sa /s/ ह ha /ɦ/ ळ ḷha //ɭʱ// क्ष kṣa /kʃ/ ज्ञ jña /ɟʝɲ/ Further information: Kannada script and Malayalam script Dialects See also: Karnataka Konkani Konkani, despite having a small population shows a very high number of dialects. The dialect tree structure of Konkani can easily be classified according to the region, religion, caste and local tongue influence.39 Other researchers have classified the dialects differently. Kalelkar classification Based on the historical events and cultural ties of the speakers, N. G. Kalelkar has broadly classified the dialects into three main groups:39 Northern Konkani: Dialects spoken in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra with strong cultural ties to Marathi; i.e. Malvani Central Konkani: Dialects in Goa and Northern Karnataka, where Konkani came in close contact with Portuguese language and culture. Southern Konkani: Dialects spoken in the Canara region(Mangalore & Udupi) of Karnataka which came in close contact with Tulu and Kannada. Ethnologue (ISO) classification Ethnologue assigns two ISO 639-3 codes to varieties called Konkani: Goan Konkani (ISO 639-3: gom) Konkani proper (Konkanese) (ISO 639-3: knn) Problems/issues The Konkani language has been in danger of dying out primarily due to: The fragmentation of Konkani into various, sometimes mutually unintelligible dialects. The Portuguese influence in Goa, especially on Catholics. Strong degree of bilingualism of Konkani Hindus in Goa and coastal Maharashtra with Marathi Progressive inroads made by Urdu into the Muslim communities. Mutual animosity among various religious and caste groups; including a secondary status of Konkani culture to religion. Migration of Konkanis to various parts of India and around the world. Lack of opportunities to study Konkani in schools and colleges. Even till recently there were few Konkani schools in Goa. Populations outside the native Konkani areas have absolutely no access to Konkani education, even informally. Preference among Konkani parents to speak to their children in “Potaachi Bhas” (language of the stomach) over “Maaim Bhas”(mother tongue) Konkani; primarily in English to help their children gain a grip over English in schools.39 Efforts have been made to stop this downward trend of usage of Konkani,citation needed starting with Shenoi Goembab's efforts to revive Konkani. There has been a renewed interest in Konkani Literature. The recognition granted by Sahitya Akademi to Konkani and the institution of an annual award for Konkani literature has helped. Some organisations such as the Konkan Daiz Yatra, organised by Konkani Bhasha Mandal, Mumbai since 1939 and the newer Vishwa Konkani Parishad have laid great stress on uniting all factions of Konkanis. Multilingualism According to the Census Department of India, Konkani speakers show a very high degree of multilingualism. In the 1991 census, as compared to the national average of 19.44% for bilingualism and 7.26% for trilingualism; Konkani speakers scored 74.20% and 44.68% respectively. This makes Konkanis the most multilingual community of India. This has been due to the fact that in most areas where Konkanis have settled, they seldom form a majority of the population and have to interact with others in the local tongue. Another reason for bilingualism has been the lack of schools teaching Konkani as a primary or secondary language. While bilingualism is not by itself a bad thing, it has been misinterpreted as a sign that Konkani is not a developed language. The bilingualism of Konkanis with Marathi in Goa and Maharashtra has been a source of great discontent because it has led to the belief that Konkani is a dialect of Marathi3955 and hence had a bearing on the future of Goa. Konkani–Marathi dispute It has been claimed by some quarters that Konkani is a dialect of Marathi and not an independent language. This has been attributed to several historical reasons (outlined in the History section), the close similarities between Marathi and Konkani, the geographical proximity between Goa and Maharashtra, the strong Marathi influence on Konkani dialects spoken in Maharashtra (such as Malwani), a supposed lack of literature in Konkani and a great degree of bilingualism of Konkani Hindus with respect to Marathi.

José Pereira, in his 1971 work “Konkani — A Language: A History of the Konkani Marathi Controversy”, pointed to an essay on Indian languages written by John Leyden in 1807 wherein Konkani is called a “dialect of Maharashtra” as an origin of the language controversy.39 Another linguist to whom the error is attributed is Grierson. Grierson's work on the languages of India: The Linguistic Survey of India was regarded as an important reference by other linguists. In his book, Grierson had distinguished between the Konkani spoken in costal Maharashtra (then, part of Bombay Presidency) and the Konkani spoken in Goa as being two different languages. He regarded the Konkani spoken in costal Maharashtra as a dialect of Marathi and not as a dialect of Goan Konkani itself. But, in his opinion, Goan Konkani was also to be considered a dialect of Marathi because the religious literature used by the Hindus in Goa was not in Konkani itself, but in Marathi. Grierson's opinion about Goan Konkani was not based on its linguistics but on the diglossic situation in Goa. S. M. Katre's 1966 work, The Formation of Konkani, which utilized the instruments of modern historical and comparative linguistics across six typical Konkani dialects, showed the formation of Konkani to be distinct from that of Marathi.3955 Shenoi Goembab, who played a pivotal role in the Konkani revival movement, rallied against the pre-eminence of Marathi over Konkani amongst Hindus and Portuguese amongst Christians. Goa's accession to India in 1961 came at a time when Indian states were being reorganized along linguistic lines. There were demands to merge Goa with Maharashtra state. This was because Goa had a sizeable population of Marathi speakers and Konkani was also considered to be a dialect of Marathi by many. Konkani Goans were opposed to the move. The status of Konkani as an independent language or as a dialect of Marathi had a great political bearing on Goa's merger, which was settled by a plebiscite in 1967.39 The Sahitya Akademi (a prominent literary organization in India) recognized it as an independent language in 1975, and subsequently Konkani (in Devanagari script) was made the official language of Goa in 1987. Script and dialect issues The problems posed by multiple scripts and varying dialects have come as an impediment in the efforts to unite Konkanis. The decision to use Devanagari as official script and Antruz dialect has met with opposition both within Goa and outside it.47 The critics contend that Antruz dialect is unintelligible to most Goans, let alone other Konkanis, and that Devanagari is used very little as compared to Roman script in Goa or Kannada script in coastal Karnataka47 Prominent among the critics are Konkani Catholics in Goa, who have been at the forefront of the Konkani agitation in 1986–87 and have for long used the Roman script including producing literature in Roman script. They are demanding that Roman script be given equal status to Devanagari.56 In Karnataka, which has the largest number of Konkanis, leading organisations and activists have similarly demanded that Kannada script be made the medium of instruction for Konkani in local schools instead of Devanagari.57 Government of Karnataka has given its approval for teaching of Konkani as an optional third language from 6th to 10th standard students either in Kannada or Devanagari script.58 Organisations The campus of the Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr (TSKK), a research institute working on issues related to the Konkani language, located at Panaji in Goa There are various organisations working for Konkani but primarily, these were restricted to individual communities. The All India Konkani Parishad founded on 23 January 1978 served the purpose of providing a common ground for all groups. A new organisation known as Vishwa Konkani Parishad, which aims to be an all-inclusive and pluralistic umbrella organization for Konkanis around the world, was founded on 11 September 2005. Mandd Sobhann is the premier organization which is striving hard to preserve, promote, propagate and enrich Konkani language and culture. The Konkan Daiz Yatra, which was started in 1939 in Mumbai, is the oldest Konkani organisation. The Konkani Bhasha Mandal was born in Mumbai on April 5, 1942 during the Third All India Conference. On December 28, 1984, Goa Konkani Akademi (GKA) was founded by the Government of Goa to promote Konkani language, literature and culture.59 The Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr (TSKK) is a popular research institute based in the Goan capital Panaji, which works on issues related to the Konkani language, literature, culture and education.60 The Dalgado Konkani Academy is a popular Konkani organisation based in Panaji. The Konkani Triveni Kala Sangam is one more famed Konkani organisation in Mumbai, which is engaged in the vocation of patronizing Konkani language through theatre movement. The Government of Karnataka established the Karnataka Konkani Sahitya Akademy on 20 April 1994.61 The Konkani Ekvott is an umbrella organisation of the various Konkani bodies in Goa. World Konkani Centre, Mangalore The First World Konkani Convention was held in Mangalore in December 1995. Konkani Language and Cultural Foundation The Konkani Language and Cultural Foundation came in to being immediately after the World Konkani Convention in 1995.62 The World Konkani Centre built on a 3 Acre plot called Konkani Gaon (Konkani Village) at Shakti Nagar, Mangalore was inaugurated on 17 January 200963 “to serve as a nodal agency for the preservation and overall development of Konkani language, art and culture involving all the Konkani people the world over.” Literature Cover of Dovtrina Christam by Fr. Thomas Stephens, first published work in Konkani, and any Indian language The inquisition of Goa is seen as a blot in the history of Konkani language.According to the orders of the Goa inquisition it was an offence to remain in possession of books in local languages.All books whatever their subject matter written in Konkani,Marathi and Sanskrit were seized by the inquisition and burnt on the suspicion that they might deal with idolatry. It is probable that valuable non-religious literature dealing with art,literature,sciences etc.were destroyed indiscriminately,as a consequence.For instance even before the inquisition orders a letter dated on 24 November 1548,D Fr Joao de Albuquerque proudly reports his achievement in this direction.64 The first known writer in the history of Konkani language so far is Shamaraja,he was also known an Krishnaraj Shama as he was an ardent devotee of lord Krishna.He was born in the 15th century AD in the village of Quellosim in Goa.As per the date mentioned in his Shrikrishnacharitrakatha,he began writing his book on 13th of Vaishakha month of Hindu lunar calender,which is 25 April 1526 as per the Gregorian calender.He has authored Ramayana,Mahabharata and Krishnacharitrakatha in prose style.The manuscripts are not found,though its transliteration in Roman script is found in Braga in Portugal.The script used by him for his work still remains a mystery.65 Vishnudas Nama who also takes pen-names like Vaishampayana,Parameshvaraco sharanagat nama has authored Bhishmaparva and Adiparva.Translierations of which are found in Public library of Braga in northern Portugal.66 Another copy of Ramayana does not bear any author's name.Though a name of certain a Sadashiva has been mentioned.66 The first known printed book in Konkani was written by an English Jesuit priest, Fr. Thomas Stephens in 1622, and entitled Dovtrina Cristam Em Lingoa Brahmana Canarim (Old Portuguese for: Christian Doctrine in the Canarese Brahman Language). The first book called as Arte da lingoa Canarim, exclusively on Konkani Grammar was printed in 1640 by Father Stephen in Portuguese.12 Similarly a book named A Konkani grammar was printed in the year 1882 in Mangalore by Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, describes Canara Konkani grammar.67 Media in Konkani Broadcast media Radio

All India Radio started broadcasting Konkani news and other services.Radio Goa Panjim started Konkani broadcast in th year 1945.AIR Mumbai and Dharwad later started it in the years 1952 and 1965 respectively.Whereas Portuguese Radio,Lisbon started services in the year 1955 fro India,East Africa and Portuguese.Similarly Trivandrum, Alleppey, Trichur and Calicut AIR centers started Konkani broadcasts.12 Miscellanea There is some disagreement about whether the name “Konkani” was always the accepted name for the language. The earliest reference to the Konkani language comes in a devotional poem by Sant Namdev (c.1270–c.1350 CE) where he has written a stanza in Konkani. An international ad campaign by Nike for the 2007 Cricket World Cup featured a Konkani song Rav Patrao Rav as the background theme. It was based on the tune of an older song Bebdo, composed by Chris Perry and sung by Lorna. The new lyrics written by Agnello Dias (who worked in the ad agency that made the ad), recomposed by Ram Sampat and sung by Ella Castellino. A Konkani cultural event Konkani Nirantari held in Mangalore on 26 and 27 January 2008; has entered the Guinness Book of World Records for holding a 40-hour-long non-stop musical singing marathon by beating the Brazilian musical troupe who had previously held the record of singing non-stop for 36 hours.68 A Konkani film Paltadacho Munis, or The Man Beyond the Bridge was selected in the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) among 300 films being played there. See also Konkani languages Malvani Maharashtri Paisaci Konkani people Malvani people Konkani words from other languages Languages of India Languages with official status in India Linguistic issues in Goa List of Indian languages by total speakers References ^ a b Whiteley, Wilfred Howell (1974). Language in Kenya. Oxford University Press,. pp. 589.  ^ a b Kurzon, Denis (2004). Where East looks West: success in English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast Volume 125 of Multilingual matters. Multilingual Matters,. pp. 158. ISBN 1853596736, 9781853596735.  ^ Devanagari has been promulgated as the official script. ^ Roman script is not mandated as official script by law. However, an ordinance passed by the Government of Goa allows the use of Roman script for official communication. ^ The use of Kannada script is not mandated by any law or ordinance. However, in the state of Karnataka, Konkani can be taught using the Kannada script instead of the Devanagari scirpt. ^ "The Goa Daman and Diu Official Language Act" (PDF). Government of India. http://india.gov.in/allimpfrms/allacts/419.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-05.  ^ "Karnataka Year book". Government of Karnataka.  ^ Kurzon, Dennis. Where East looks West: success in English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast. pp. 25–30.  ^ a b Caroline Menezes (The National Institute for Japanese language, Tokyo, Japan). 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ISBN 8126003650, 9788126003655.  ^ a b c d e f g Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 1088. ISBN 041577294X, 9780415772945.  ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Janardhan, Pandarinath Bhuvanendra (1991) (in English, Konkani). A Higher Konkani grammar. Foreign Language Study / Indic Languages Konkani language About. P.B. Janardhan. pp. 540 pages.  ^ Indian archives. Volume 34. National Archives of India. National Archives of India. pp. 1985.  ^ Ghantkar, Gajanana (1993) (in English, Konkani, Marathi, Kannada). History of Goa through Gõykanadi script. pp. Page x.  ^ Gomanta Bharati,yatta payali,Published by GOA BOARD OF SECONDARY AND HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION ALTO BETIM,page number:11 ^ a b Language in India ^ Goa group wants Konkani in Roman script ^ "Kannada script must be used to teach Konkani". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 14 March 2006. http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/14/stories/2006031416160300.htm.  ^ http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=35720&n_tit=Mangalore:+Konkani+Textbooks+in+Devanagari+Released ^ "Goa Konkani Akademi — promoting the development of Konkani language, literature and culture". Goa Konkani Akademi. http://www.goakonkaniakademi.org/. Retrieved 2008-06-16.  ^ "Thomas Stephens Konknni Kendr". http://www.tskk.org/. Retrieved 2008-06-16.  ^ "Konkani". Kalaangann, Mandd Sobhann (The Konkani Heritage Centre). Archived from the original on 2008-02-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20080224134442/http://www.kalaangann.com/konkani.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-16.  ^ "Encouragement for Vishwa Konkani Kendra". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 6 September 2005. http://www.hindu.com/2005/09/06/stories/2005090615340300.htm.  ^ http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=55810 ^ Saradesāya, Manohararāya (2000). A history of Konkani literature: from 1500 to 1992. Sahitya Akademi,. pp. 317. ISBN 8172016646, 9788172016647.  ^ Bhembre, Uday (September 2009). Konkani bhashetalo paylo sahityakar:Krishnadas Shama. Sunaparant Goa. pp. 55–57.  ^ a b Gomes, Olivinho (1997). Medieval Indian literature: an anthology, Volume 3 Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology, K. Ayyappapanicker. Sahitya Akademi,. pp. 256–290. ISBN 8126003650, 9788126003655.  ^ Maffei, Angelus Francis Xavier (in English, Konkani). A Konkani grammar. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=lZv6UyynBPgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=konkani+grammar&cd=1#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 22 April 2010.  ^ "Mangalore: Guinness Adjudicator Hopeful of Certifying Konkani Nirantari". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=42855&n_tit=Mangalore%3A+Guinness+Adjudicator+Hopeful+of+Certifying+Konkani+Nirantari. Retrieved 2008-02-01.  External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Konkani Konkani language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator Konkani Phrasebook at Wikitravel Learn Goan Konkani online Learn Mangalorean GSB Konkani online Learn Mangalorean Catholic Konkani online The Origins of the Konkani Language An excellent article on Konkani history and literature by Goa Konkani Academi Online Manglorean Konkani Dictionary Project Online Konkani (GSB) dictionary World Konkani Centre, Mangalore v · d · e (Official) Languages of India Union-level Official languages

Hindi · English State-level Official languages Assamese · Bengali · Bodo · Chhattisgarhi · Dogri · English  · Garo · Gujarati · Hindi · Kannada · Kashmiri · Khasi · Kokborok · Konkani · Maithili · Malayalam · Manipuri · Marathi · Mizo · Nepali · Oriya · Punjabi · Sanskrit  · Santali · Sindhi · Telugu · Tamil · Urdu v · d · e Indo-Iranian languages  Indic (Indo-Aryan)  Old · Middle Old Sanskrit (Vedic · Classical) · Mitanni superstrate Middle Abahatta · Apabhraṃśa · Dramatic Prakrits (Magadhi · Maharashtri · Shauraseni) · Elu · Gāndhārī · Jain · Paisaci · Pāli · Prakrit  Modern Central Hindi Awadhi · Bagheli · Bambaiya Hindi · Brij Bhasha · Bundeli · Chhattisgarhi · Fiji Hindi · Haryanvi · Kannauji · Sansiboli · Sadhukaddi (early form) Urdu Dakhni · Rekhta (early form) Others Dhanwar Rai Eastern Bengali Chittagonian · Sylheti Others Angika · Assamese · Bhojpuri · Bishnupriya Manipuri · Chakma · Halbi · Hajong · Kayort · Kharia Thar · Magahi · Maithili · Majhi · Mal Paharia · Nahari · Oriya · Rajbanshi · Rohingya · Sadri Northern Garhwali · Kumaoni · Nepali (Palpa) · Potwari North western Punjabi Saraiki · Majhi Others Aer · Derawali · Dogri · Hindko · Kangri · Kutchi · Sindhi Southern Dhivehi · Konkani · Mahal · Marathi · Sinhala Western Bhil Bhili · Gamit Rajasthani Bagri · Goaria · Gojri · Jaipuri · Malvi · Marwari · Mewari · Dhatki (sociolect) Others Domari · Gujarati · Kalto · Khandeshi · Parkari Koli · Romani · Saurashtra  Iranian  Old · Middle Old Western Old Persian · Median Eastern Avestan · Old Scythian Middle Western Middle Persian · Parthian Eastern Bactrian · Khwarezmian · Ossetic (Jassic) · Sakan (Sacian) · Scythian · Sogdian  Modern Western Persian Aimaq · Bukhori · Dari · Dehwari · Dzhidi · Hazaragi · Iranian Persian · Judeo-Shirazi · Khuzestani · Larestani · Tajik Kurdish Kermanshahi · Kurmanji · Soranî · Laki Others Old Azari · Balochi · Bashkardi · Caspian · Central Iran · Dari (Zoroastrian) · Fars · Gilaki · Gorani · Harzandi · Juhuri · Kumzari · Luri · Bakhtiari Lori · Mazandarani (Gorgani) · Ormuri · Sangsari · Parachi · Semnani · Taleshi · Tajik · Tat · Tati · Zazaki Eastern Pamir Ishkashimi · Munji · Roshani (Roshni) · Shughni · Sarikoli · Wakhi · Yazgulami · Yidgha Others Bartangi · Hindukush group · Ishkashmi · Karakoram group · Khufi · Munji · Oroshori · Ossetic · Pashto · Sanglechi · Vanji · Waziri · Yaghnobi · Zebaki Unclassified Tangshewi  Other Indo-Iranian languages Dardic Dameli · Domaaki · Gawar-Bati · Kalami · Kalash · Kashmiri · Khowar · Kohistani · Nangalami · Palula · Pashayi · Shina · Shumashti · Torwali · Ushoji Nuristani Kamkata-viri Kamviri · Kata-vari · Mumviri Others Askunu · Kalasha-ala · Kamkata-viri · Tregami language · Vasi-vari Italics indicate extinct languages.

Hindi · English State-level Official languages Assamese · Bengali · Bodo · Chhattisgarhi · Dogri · English  · Garo · Gujarati · Hindi · Kannada · Kashmiri · Khasi · Kokborok · Konkani · Maithili · Malayalam · Manipuri · Marathi · Mizo · Nepali · Oriya · Punjabi · Sanskrit  · Santali · Sindhi · Telugu · Tamil · Urdu v · d · e Indo-Iranian languages  Indic (Indo-Aryan)  Old · Middle Old Sanskrit (Vedic · Classical) · Mitanni superstrate Middle Abahatta · Apabhraṃśa · Dramatic Prakrits (Magadhi · Maharashtri · Shauraseni) · Elu · Gāndhārī · Jain · Paisaci · Pāli · Prakrit  Modern Central Hindi Awadhi · Bagheli · Bambaiya Hindi · Brij Bhasha · Bundeli · Chhattisgarhi · Fiji Hindi · Haryanvi · Kannauji · Sansiboli · Sadhukaddi (early form) Urdu Dakhni · Rekhta (early form) Others Dhanwar Rai Eastern Bengali Chittagonian · Sylheti Others Angika · Assamese · Bhojpuri · Bishnupriya Manipuri · Chakma · Halbi · Hajong · Kayort · Kharia Thar · Magahi · Maithili · Majhi · Mal Paharia · Nahari · Oriya · Rajbanshi · Rohingya · Sadri Northern Garhwali · Kumaoni · Nepali (Palpa) · Potwari North western Punjabi Saraiki · Majhi Others Aer · Derawali · Dogri · Hindko · Kangri · Kutchi · Sindhi Southern Dhivehi · Konkani · Mahal · Marathi · Sinhala Western Bhil Bhili · Gamit Rajasthani Bagri · Goaria · Gojri · Jaipuri · Malvi · Marwari · Mewari · Dhatki (sociolect) Others Domari · Gujarati · Kalto · Khandeshi · Parkari Koli · Romani · Saurashtra  Iranian  Old · Middle Old Western Old Persian · Median Eastern Avestan · Old Scythian Middle Western Middle Persian · Parthian Eastern Bactrian · Khwarezmian · Ossetic (Jassic) · Sakan (Sacian) · Scythian · Sogdian  Modern Western Persian Aimaq · Bukhori · Dari · Dehwari · Dzhidi · Hazaragi · Iranian Persian · Judeo-Shirazi · Khuzestani · Larestani · Tajik Kurdish Kermanshahi · Kurmanji · Soranî · Laki Others Old Azari · Balochi · Bashkardi · Caspian · Central Iran · Dari (Zoroastrian) · Fars · Gilaki · Gorani · Harzandi · Juhuri · Kumzari · Luri · Bakhtiari Lori · Mazandarani (Gorgani) · Ormuri · Sangsari · Parachi · Semnani · Taleshi · Tajik · Tat · Tati · Zazaki Eastern Pamir Ishkashimi · Munji · Roshani (Roshni) · Shughni · Sarikoli · Wakhi · Yazgulami · Yidgha Others Bartangi · Hindukush group · Ishkashmi · Karakoram group · Khufi · Munji · Oroshori · Ossetic · Pashto · Sanglechi · Vanji · Waziri · Yaghnobi · Zebaki Unclassified Tangshewi  Other Indo-Iranian languages Dardic Dameli · Domaaki · Gawar-Bati · Kalami · Kalash · Kashmiri · Khowar · Kohistani · Nangalami · Palula · Pashayi · Shina · Shumashti · Torwali · Ushoji Nuristani Kamkata-viri Kamviri · Kata-vari · Mumviri Others Askunu · Kalasha-ala · Kamkata-viri · Tregami language · Vasi-vari Italics indicate extinct languages.