Indo-Aryan Indic Geographic distribution: South Asia Linguistic Classification: Indo-European  Indo-Iranian   Indo-Aryan Subdivisions: North-Western Zone Northern Zone (incl. some Hindi) Central Zone (incl. some Hindi) Eastern Zone (incl. some Hindi) Southern Zone Insular Indo-Aryan ISO 639-2 and 639-5: inc Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages (Urdu is not shown because it is mainly a lingua franca with no prevalence as a first language. Outside of the scope of the map is the migratory Romani language). The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic1) constitutes a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. The largest in terms of native speakers being Hindustani (Standard Hindi and Urdu, about 240 million), Bengali (about 230 million), Punjabi (about 90 million), Marathi (about 70 million), Gujarati (about 45 million), Oriya (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 20 million), Nepali (about 14 million), Sinhala (about 16 million), Saraiki (about 14 million) and Assamese (about 13 million) with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million. They form a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian languages, which consists of two other language groups: the Iranian and Nuristani. Contents 1 History 1.1 Indian subcontinent 1.1.1 Old Indic 1.1.2 Middle Indic 1.1.3 Modern Indic 1.1.3.1 Dialect continuum 1.1.3.2 Standard forms of Hindu-Urdu 1.2 Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni 1.3 Romani language 2 Classification 3 Phonology 3.1 Consonants 3.1.1 Stop positions[3] 3.1.2 Nasals[4] 3.2 Charts 4 See also 5 References 6 External links // History Indian subcontinent See also: Linguistic history of India Old Indic The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the language used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age as the Rigveda, but the only evidence is a number of loanwords. In about the 4th century BCE, the Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention. Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. Middle Indic By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indic dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indic with early Modern Indic, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim invasions of India in the 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. Under the flourishing Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts. However, Persian was soon displaced by Urdu. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects. The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindi; others include Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, and Punjabi. Modern Indic Dialect continuum The Indic languages of Northern India and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Bengali, Oriya, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be Hindi despite being part of the same dialect continuum. Standard forms of Hindu-Urdu See also: History of Hindi and History of Urdu In the Hindi-speaking areas, the prestige dialect was long Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by Khari Boli. This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947. Hindustani (commonly known as Urdu) was replaced by Standard Hindi as the official language of India, and soon the Persian-Arabian words of Urdu began to be excised from the official Hindi corpus, in a bid to make the language more "Indian". A return to Hindi poets such as Tulsidas resulted in what is known as a Sanskritisation of the language. Persian words in common parlance were slowly replaced by Sanskrit words, sometimes borrowed wholesale, or in new compounds. In contemporary times, there is a continuum of Hindi–Urdu, with heavily-Persianised Urdu at one end and Sanskritised Hindi at the other, although the basic grammar remains identical. Most people speak something in the middle, and this is what the term Hindustani is frequently used to mean today. Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni Main article: Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general 2

Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha,~ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen< Heidelberg 1986-2000; Vol. II 358). Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736). Romani language Main article: Romani language The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages. Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest. There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000. The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.

It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century. Classification Main article: List of Indo-Aryan languages Indo-Aryan languages, grouping according to SIL Ethnologue:   Central zone   Northern zone   Northwestern zone   Eastern zone   Southern zone   Insular (Southern) Because there are not always clear breaks between languages, there is no definite classification of the Indo-Aryan languages. However, they are commonly divided as follows: Dardic languages, such as Kashmiri: their exact position within Indo-Aryan, or between Indo-Aryan and Iranian, is uncertain. Northern languages: Nepali, Kumaoni, Garhwali Northwestern languages, such as Panjabi, Sindhi, and the Western Pahari languages Western languages, such as Gujarati, Rajasthani, and perhaps the Romani languagecitation needed Madhya, Hindi, or Central languages, such as Hindi-Urdu and Awadhi Magadhan, or Eastern, languages, such as Assamese, Bengali, Oriya , Maithili and Bhojpuri Southern languages, such as Dhivehi, Konkani, Marathi and Sinhala Phonology Consonants Stop positions3 The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering. Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, t̪ > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhalese (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which is in danger of losing its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]). /p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /tʃ/, /k/ Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari,Maithili, Sinhalese, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari) /p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/ Nepali, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dacca, Maimansing, Rajshahi), dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri) /p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /k/ Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri /p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /ts/, /tʃ/, /tʂ/, /k/ Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai /p/, /t̪/, /ʈ/, /k/ Rajasthani's S. Mewari /p/, /t/, /k/ Assamese /p/, /t/, /tʃ/, /k/ Romani /t̪/, /ʈ/ Chittagonian Nasals4 Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well. Charts The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical. Romani p t (ts) tʃ k pʲ tʲ kʲ b d (dz) dʒ g bʲ dʲ ɡʲ pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n nʲ (f) s ʃ x (fʲ) sʲ v (z) ʒ ɦ vʲ zʲ ɾ l lʲ j Shina p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ tʂ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ ɖʐ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ kʰ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ (f) s ʂ ɕ z ʐ ʑ ɦ ɾ l ɽ w j Kashmiri p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k pʲ t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ kʲ b d̪ ɖ dʒ g bʲ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ kʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ m n ɲ mʲ nʲ s ʃ sʲ z ɦ zʲ ɦʲ ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ w j wʲ Siraiki p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ Punjabi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ m n ɳ [ɲ ŋ] (f) s (ʃ) (z) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ [w] [j] Nepali p t̪ ʈ ts k b d̪ ɖ dz g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɾʱ lʱ [w] [j] Assamese p t k b d g pʰ tʰ kʰ bʱ dʱ ɡʱ m n ŋ s x z ɦ ɾ l [w] Sindhi p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ m n ɳ ɲ ŋ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s (ʃ) (x) (z) (ɣ) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ w j wʱ Marwari p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɭ w j wʱ Hindi/Urdu p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n (f) s (ʃ) (z) ɦ ɾ l ɽ ɽʱ ([w]) ([j]) Bengali p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɽ [w] [j] Gujarati p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ ɳʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j Marathi p t̪ ʈ ts tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dz dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ mʱ nʱ s ʃ ɦ ɾ l ɭ ɾʱ lʱ w j wʱ Oriya p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g pʰ t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʱ d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ m n ɳ s ɦ ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ [ɽʱ] [w] [j] Sinhalese p t̪ ʈ tʃ k b d̪ ɖ dʒ g ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ m n ɲ ŋ s ɦ ɾ l w j See also List of Indo-Aryan languages Indo-Aryans Indo-Iranians Indo-Aryan migration Proto-Vedic Continuity The family of Brahmic scripts Linguistic history of India Indo-Aryan loanwords in Tamil References ^ Note that, unlike the generic adjective "Indian", "Indic" is the term used in the context of Indo-European linguistics, and is not strictly a geographical term; non-Indo-European languages spoken in India are not included in the term, while the Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni, on the other hand, probably testifies to speakers of an Indic language that never settled on the Indian subcontinent ^ Paul Thieme, The 'Aryan' Gods of the Mitanni Treaties. JAOS 80, 1960, 301-17 ^ Masica (1991:94–95) ^ Masica (1991:95–96) John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872-1879. 3 vols. Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, eds. (2003), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 9780415772945, http://books.google.com/books?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=indo-aryan+languages . Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk). Chakrabarti,Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 8170741289 Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6. Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3. Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521299442, http://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=indo-aryan+languages . Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan. Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1-2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan. Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University. External links The Indo Aryan languages Transliteration of Indic Languages & Scripts - Dr. Anthony Stone's Page Survey of the syntax of the modern Indo-Aryan languages (Rajesh Bhatt) v · d · e Indo-Iranian languages  Indic (Indo-Aryan)  Old · Middle Old Sanskrit (Vedic · Classical) · Mitanni superstrate Middle Abahatta · Apabhraṃśa · Dramatic Prakrits (Magadhi · Maharashtri · Shauraseni) · Elu · Gāndhārī · Jain · Paisaci · Pāli · Prakrit  Modern Central Hindi Awadhi · Bagheli · Bambaiya Hindi · Brij Bhasha · Bundeli · Chhattisgarhi · Fiji Hindi · Haryanvi · Kannauji · Sansiboli · Sadhukaddi (early form) Urdu Dakhni · Rekhta (early form) Others Dhanwar Rai Eastern Bengali Chittagonian · Sylheti Others Angika · Assamese · Bhojpuri · Bishnupriya Manipuri · Chakma · Halbi · Hajong · Kayort · Kharia Thar · Magahi · Maithili · Majhi · Mal Paharia · Nahari · Oriya · Rajbanshi · Rohingya · Sadri Northern Garhwali · Kumaoni · Nepali (Palpa) · Potwari North western Punjabi Saraiki · Majhi Others Aer · Derawali · Dogri · Hindko · Kangri · Kutchi · Sindhi Southern Dhivehi · Konkani · Mahal · Marathi · Sinhala Western Bhil Bhili · Gamit Rajasthani Bagri · Goaria · Gojri · Jaipuri · Malvi · Marwari · Mewari · Dhatki (sociolect) Others Domari · Gujarati · Kalto · Khandeshi · Parkari Koli · Romani · Saurashtra  Iranian  Old · Middle Old Western Old Persian · Median Eastern Avestan · Old Scythian Middle Western Middle Persian · Parthian Eastern Bactrian · Khwarezmian · Ossetic (Jassic) · Sakan (Sacian) · Scythian · Sogdian  Modern Western Persian Aimaq · Bukhori · Dari · Dehwari · Dzhidi · Hazaragi · Iranian Persian · Judeo-Shirazi · Khuzestani · Larestani · Tajik Kurdish Kermanshahi · Kurmanji · Soranî · Laki Others Old Azari · Balochi · Bashkardi · Caspian · Central Iran · Dari (Zoroastrian) · Fars · Gilaki · Gorani · Harzandi · Juhuri · Kumzari · Luri · Bakhtiari Lori · Mazandarani (Gorgani) · Ormuri · Sangsari · Parachi · Semnani · Taleshi · Tajik · Tat · Tati · Zazaki Eastern Pamir Ishkashimi · Munji · Roshani (Roshni) · Shughni · Sarikoli · Wakhi · Yazgulami · Yidgha Others Bartangi · Hindukush group · Ishkashmi · Karakoram group · Khufi · Munji · Oroshori · Ossetic · Pashto · Sanglechi · Vanji · Waziri · Yaghnobi · Zebaki Unclassified Tangshewi  Other Indo-Iranian languages Dardic Dameli · Domaaki · Gawar-Bati · Kalami · Kalash · Kashmiri · Khowar · Kohistani · Nangalami · Palula · Pashayi · Shina · Shumashti · Torwali · Ushoji Nuristani Kamkata-viri Kamviri · Kata-vari · Mumviri Others Askunu · Kalasha-ala · Kamkata-viri · Tregami language · Vasi-vari Italics indicate extinct languages. v · d · eLanguages of South Asia Main articles Languages of India (list by number of speakers - scheduled) · Languages of Pakistan · Languages of Bangladesh · Languages of Nepal · Languages of Sri Lanka Contemporary languages Austronesian: Sri Lanka Malay • Dravidian: Brahui · Jeseri · Kannada · Malayalam · Tamil · Telugu · Tulu • Indo-Aryan: Angika · Assamese · Bhojpuri · Bengali · Dhivehi · Dogri · Gujarati · Hindi · Hindko · Kashmiri · Konkani · Kumaoni  · Magahi · Mahal · Maithili · Marathi · Nepali · Oriya · Punjabi · Saraiki · Sindhi · Sinhala · Urdu • Iranian: Balochi · Pashto · Persian · Wakhi • Isolates: Great Andamanese · Burushaski · Nihali · Kusunda • Mon-Khmer: Khasi · Nicobarese • Munda: Ho · Korku · Mundari · Santali · Sora • Ongan: Önge · Jarawa • Tibeto-Burman: Ao · Bodo · Garo · Meitei · Mizo · Nepal Bhasa · Sikkimese · Tenyidie · Tibetan · Tripuri • European influence: English · French · Portuguese Scripts Indus · Brahmi • Brahmic family: Devanagari · Sinhala · Telugu · Tamil · Tulu · Gurmukhi · Bengali · Ranjana · Oriya · Malayalam · Kannada · Gujarati • Arabic: Arwi · Nasta'liq · Shahmukhi • Arabi Malayalam Language activism Hela Havula · Bengali Language Movement · Sanskrit revival · Pure Tamil movement · Nepal Bhasa movement · Madras anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 · Urdu movement