Greeks

This article is about the Greek people. For the finance term, see Greeks (finance). Greeks Έλληνες 1st row: Homer • King Leonidas • Pericles • Herodotus • Hippocrates 2nd row: Socrates • Plato • Aristotle • Alexander the Great • Archimedes 3rd row: Hypatia • Basil II • Alexios Komnenos • Gemistos Plethon • El Greco 4th row: Rigas Feraios • Theodoros Kolokotronis • Laskarina Bouboulina • Georgios Karaiskakis • Ioannis Kapodistrias • 5th row: Eleftherios Venizelos • Constantine Cavafy • Georgios Papanikolaou • Archbishop Makarios • Pyrros Dimas Total population approx. 14 - 17 million 1 Regions with significant populations  Greece 10,280,000 (2001 census) 2  United States 1,390,4393-3,000,000a (2009 est.) 4  Cyprus 792,604 (July 2008 Est.) 5  United Kingdom 400,000 (estimate) 6  Australia 365,1207 (2006 census)-700,000a 8  Germany 294,891 (2007 est.) 9  Canada 242,685b (2006 census) 10  Albania approx. 200,000 11  Russia 12  Chile 1,500 13 - 90,000–120,000 14  Ukraine 91,500 (2001 census) 15  South Africa 55,000 (2008 estimate) 16  Brazil 50,000c 17  France 35,000(2009 est.) 18  Argentina 30,000 (2008 estimate) 19  Italy 30,000 (2008 estimate) 20  Belgium 15,742 (2007) 21  Sweden 12,000–15,000 22  Kazakhstan 13,000 (est) 23  Switzerland 11,000 estimated 24  Uzbekistan 9,500 estimate 25  Romania 6,500 2002 census 26  Armenia 6,000 27  Turkey 2,500 27  Syria 1,500 28 Languages Greek Religion Greek Orthodox Christian Footnotes a Higher figure includes those of ancestral descent. b Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is solely "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada. c "Including descendants". The Greeks (Greek: Έλληνες, [ˈelines]), also known as Hellenes, are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world.29 Greek colonies and communities have been historically established in most corners of the Mediterranean, but Greeks have always been centred around the Aegean Sea, where the Greek language has been spoken since antiquity.30 Until the early 20th century, Greeks were uniformly distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, Pontus, Egypt, Cyprus and Constantinople; many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of the ancient Greek colonization.31 In the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), a large-scale population exchange between Greece and Turkey transferred and confined ethnic Greeks almost entirely into the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. Other ethnic Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and in diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are members of the Greek Orthodox Church.32 Contents 1 History 1.1 Origins 1.2 Mycenaean 1.3 Classical 1.4 Hellenistic 1.5 Byzantine 1.6 Ottoman 1.7 Modern 2 Identity 2.1 Names 2.2 Modern and Ancient 2.3 Demographics 2.4 Diaspora 2.4.1 Ancient 2.4.2 Modern 3 Culture 3.1 Language 3.2 Religion 3.3 Art 3.4 Science 3.5 Symbols 3.6 Surnames 3.7 Sea 4 Timeline 5 See also 6 Notes 7 Citations 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links // History Further information: History of Greece The Greeks speak the Greek language, which forms its own unique branch within the Indo-European family of languages, the Hellenic.30 They are part of a group of pre-modern ethnicities, described by Anthony D. Smith as an "archetypal diaspora people".3334 The modern Greek state was created in 1832, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands from the Ottoman Empire.35 The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism,36 which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire, formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism.373839 Origins Further information: Proto-Greek language and List of Ancient Greek tribes The distribution of the ancient Greek tribes between 1000 and 800 BC, in H.G. Wells' The Outline of History (1920). The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, at the end of the 3rd millennium BC.4041[a] The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BC has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects, as they presented themselves centuries later and is subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first of the Ionians and Aeolians which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BC,3042 and the second, the Dorian invasion, around the 11th century BC, displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse. There were some suggestions of three waves of migration indicating a Proto-Ionian one, either contemporary or even earlier than the Mycenaean. This possibility appears to have been first suggested by Ernst Curtius in the 1880s. In current scholarship, the standard assumption is to group the Ionic together with the Arcadocypriot group as the successors of a single Middle Bronze Age migration in dual opposition to the "western" group of Doric. Mycenaean Main article: Mycenaean Greece A Kouros, from the Archaic period. Archaeological Museum of Thebes, Greece. The Mycenaeans were ultimately the first Greek-speaking people attested through historical sources, written records in the Linear B script,43 and through their literary echoes in the works of Homer, a few centuries later. The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and by the 15th century BC had reached Rhodes, Crete, Cyprus, where Teucer is said to have founded the first colony, and the shores of Asia Minor.3044 Around 1200 BC the Dorians, another Greek-speaking people, followed from Epirus.45 Traditionally, historians have believed that the Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, but it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders (sea peoples) who sailed into the eastern Medditeranean around 1180 BC.46 The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages, but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible.30 In the Homeric epics, the Greeks of prehistory are viewed as the ancestors of the early classical civilization of Homer's own time,47 while the Mycenaean pantheon included many of the divinities (e.g. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades) attested in later Greek religion.4849 Classical Main article: Classical Greece Hoplites fighting. Detail from an Attic black-figure hydria, ca. 560 BC–550 BC. Louvre, Paris. The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC. It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.50 The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is marked, according to some scholars, by the first Olympic Games in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek-speaking tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.29 While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Greek genos their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek city-states. The Peloponnesian War, the large scale Greek civil war between Athens and Sparta and their allies, is a case in point.51 Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united under the banner of Philip's and Alexander the Great's pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.52 In any case, Alexander's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire, after his victories at the battles of the Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, and advance as far as modern-day Pakistan and Tajikistan,53 provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.54 While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca, a position it retained even in Roman times.55 Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia and many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake.56 Two thousand years later, there are still communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan, like the Kalash, who claim to be descended from Greek settlers.57 Hellenistic Main article: Hellenistic Greece The major Hellenistic realms; the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue) and the Seleucid Empire (yellow). Bust of Cleopatra VII. Altes Museum, Berlin. The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.58 This Hellenistic age, so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non-Greek cultures,59 lasted until the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC.58 This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi.6061 Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.62 An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian (non-Greek) peoples which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms. This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation.62 In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.29 The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world.6163 In the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kingdoms, Greco-Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China.64 Further east, the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan.65 Byzantine Main article: Byzantine Greeks Statues of Saints Cyril and Methodius, missionaries of Christianity among the Slavic peoples, on the Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc, Czech Republic. Of the new eastern religions introduced into the Greek world the most successful was Christianity. While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire, they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promoted a robust Roman national identity.66 Concurrently the secular, urban civilization of late antiquity survived in the Eastern Mediterranean along with Greco-Roman educational system, although it was from Christianity that the culture's essential values were drawn.67 "Much of what we know of antiquity – especially of Hellenic and Roman literature and of Roman law — would have been lost for ever but for the scholars and scribes and copyists of Constantinople." J.J. Norwich68 The Eastern Roman Empire – today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire, a name not in use during its own time69 – became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century, when Emperor Heraclius (AD 575 - 641) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.7071 Certainly from then on, but likely earlier, the Roman and Greek cultures were virtually fused into a single Greco-Roman world. Although the Latin West recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the "Roman Emperor" on December 25, 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks (Imperium Graecorum).72 Greek-speakers at the time, however, referred to themselves as Romaioi ("Romans").69 These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.676873 Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost.7475 The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.76 To the Slavic world, Roman era Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Greek brothers Saints Cyril and Methodius from Thessaloniki, who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet.77 A distinct Greek political identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, so that when the empire was revived in 1261, it became in many ways a Greek national state.37 That new notion of nationhood engendered a deep interest in the classical past culminating in the ideas of the Neoplatonist philosopher Gemistus Pletho, who abandoned Christianity.37 However, it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.37 Ottoman Main article: Ottoman Greeks The cover of Hermes o Logios, a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th century. Following the Fall of Constantinople in the May 29, 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West, particularly Italy, Central Europe, Germany and Russia.74 For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (milletler), so the exonym "Greeks" (Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin.38 The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi,78 (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (genos) to be Hellenic.79 The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce.80 It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.36 Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821 the three most important centres of Greek learning, were situated in Chios, Smyrna and Aivalicitation needed, all three major centres of Greek commerce.36 Modern Main article: Greece Greeks in Kolonaki district, Athens. The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the Modern Greek state in 1830. According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822, a Greek was defined as any Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece, a clause removed by 1840.81 A century later, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, while most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1,5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.N 182838485 The Greek genocide, contemporaneous with the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign, was part of this process of turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.86 While most Greeks today are descended from Greek-speaking Romioi there are sizeable groups of ethnic Greeks who trace their descent to Aromanian-speaking Vlachs and Albanian-speaking Arvanites as well as Slavophones and Turkish-speaking Karamanlides.87 None of the latter groups were ever considered less Greek than the Rhomioi, and they self-identify as Greeks.88 Today, Greeks are to be found all around the world as and there are many talented Greek scholars, entrepreneurs and artists.89 Identity Part of a series on Greeks By region or country Greece · Cyprus Greek diaspora Subgroups Antiochians · Arvanites Cypriots · Karamanlides Macedonians · Maniots Northern Epirotes Phanariotes · Pontians Romaniotes · Sarakatsani Sfakians · Slavophones Souliotes · Tsakonians Urums Greek culture Art · Cinema · Cuisine Dance · Dress · Education Flag · Language · Literature Music · Philosophy · Politics Religion · Sport · Television Religion Greek Orthodox Church Greek Roman Catholicism Greek Byzantine Catholicism Greek Evangelicalism Judaism · Islam · Neopaganism Languages and dialects Greek Calabrian Greek Cappadocian Greek Cretan Greek · Griko Cypriot Greek Cheimarriotika · Maniot Greek Pontic Greek · Tsakonian Yevanic · Arvanitika Karamanlidika · Slavika Urum History of Greece v · d · e The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.90 By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language, whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek.3891 Byzantine Greeks called themselves Romioi and considered themselves the political heirs of Rome, but at least by the 12th century a growing number of those educated, deemed themselves the heirs of ancient Greece as well, although for most of the Greek speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.92 On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.93 Before the establishment of the Modern Greek state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".94 The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos, defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue, not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.95 In ancient and medieval times and to a lesser extent today the Greek term was genos, which also indicates a common ancestry.9697 Names Main article: Names of the Greeks Throughout the centuries, Greeks and Greek speakers have been known by a number of names, including: Hellenes Homer is referring originally to Hellenes,as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia,with its warriors under the command of Achilleus.98 In the Parian Chronicle is mentioned that Phthia was the homeland of Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks (Γραικοί).99 In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of Hellenes, was son of Deucalion who ruled around Phthia and Pyrrha, the only survivors after the great deluge.100Aristotle names Ancient Hellas an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, the location of the great deluge of Deucalion, a land occupied by the Selloi and the "Greeks" who later became to be known as "Hellenes".101 Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus 102 and the word probably means "sacrificers" (to Goth. saljan: present,sacrifice ). There is currently no satisfactory etymology of the name Hellenes. Some scholars assert that the name Selloi changed to Sellanes (as Akarnanes) and then to Hellanes-Hellenes.103(Compare PIE *s(e)wol :Gk.helios,Lt.sol,Sanskrit.suryah, Engl.sun)104 The second part of the word Hellas (Hel-las) may be derived from Laos (people)citation needed which Apollodorus derived from laes(stones).105 In this etymology it is unclear what the first part of the word Hel-las would stand for. Greeks (Γραικοί) Aristotle notes that the Hellenes were previously called Graecoi/Greeks (Meteorologica I.xiv) a tribe of Epirus. A modern theory derives the name Greek (Lt.Graeci) from Graecos inhabitant of Graia -or Graea-(Γραία), a town on the coast of Boeotia. Greek colonists from Graia helped to found Cumae (900 BC) in Italy 106 In Greek graia means "old woman" and is derived from the PIE root *gere:"to grow old".107108 Compare Proto-Greek gỿraj:"old age" and later "gift of honour" (Mycenean:"kera,geras"),and grau-j:"old lady".109 The Germanic languages borrowed the word Greeks with an initial "k" sound which probably was their initial sound closest to the Latin "g" at the time(Goth.Kreks).The area out of ancient Attica including Boeotia was called Graikicitation needed and is connected with the deluge of Ogyges,the mythological ruler of Boeotia. The area was originally occupied by the Minyans who were probably Proto-Greek speaking people.110 In ancient Greek the name Ogyges came to mean "from earliest days".111 Achaeans (Αχαιοί). Homer uses the terms Achaeans and Danaans as a generic term for Greeks in Iliad 112 and they were probably a part of the Mycenean civilization. The names Achaioi and Danaoi seem to be pre-Dorian belonging to the people who were overthrown. They were forced to the region that later bore the name Achaea during the Dorian invasion.citation needed In the 5th century BC they were redefined as contemporary speakers of Aeolic Greek which was spoken mainly in Thessaly, Boetia and Lesbos and shows many archaisms in comparison with the other Greek dialectscitation needed. There are many controversial theories on the origin of the Achaeans. According to one view, the Achaeans were one of the fair-headed tribes of upper Europe, who pressed down over the Alps during the early Iron age (1300 BC) to southern Europe.113 Another theory suggests that the Peloponnesian Dorians were the Achaeans.114 These theories are rejected by other scholars who, based on linguistic criteria, suggest that the Achaeans were mainland pre-Dorian Greeks.115 There is also the theory that there was an Achaean ethnos that migrated from Asia minor to lower Thessaly prior to 2000 BC.116 Some Hittite texts mention a nation lying to the west called Ahhiyava or Ahhiya.117 Egyptian documents are referring to Ekwesh, one of the groups of sea peoples who attached Egypt during the reign of Merneptah(1213-1203 BCE), who may have been Achaeans.118 Danaans or Danaoi (Δαναοί) and Argives (Αργείοι). In Homer's Iliad the names Danaans and Argives are used to designate the Greek forces opposed to the Trojans. The myth of Danaus whose origin is Egypt, is a foundation legend of Argos.His daughters Danaides,were forced in Tartarus to carry a jug to fill a bathtub without a bottom.This myth is probably connected with the worship of waterscitation needed and the name can be derived from the PIE root *danu:"river".119120 There is not any satisfactory theory on their origin. Some scholars connect Danaans with the Denyen, one of the groups of the sea peoples who attacked Egypt during the reign of Ramesses III (1187-1156 BCE).121 The same inscription mentions the Weshesh who might have been the Achaeans. The Denyen seem to have been inhabitants of the city Adana in Cilicia.Pottery similar to that of Mycenae itself has been found in Tarsus of Cilicia and it seems that some refugees from the Aegean went there after the collapse of the Mycenean civilization.These Cilicians seem to have been called Dananiyim,the same word as Danaoi who attacked Egypt in 1191BC along with the Quaouash (or Weshesh) who may be Achaeans.122 They were also called Danuna according to a Hittite inscription and the same name is mentioned in the Amarna letters.123Julius Pokorny reconstructs the name from the PIE root da:-: "flow,river", da:-nu: "any moving liquid,drops" ,da:navo "people living by the river, Skyth.nomadic people (in Rigveda water-demons,fem.Da:nu primordial goddess),124 in Greek Danaoi, Egypt. Danuna".125 It is also possible that the name Danaans is Pre-Greek. A country Danaja with a city Mukana (propaply:Mycenea) is mentioned in inscriptions from Egypt from Amenophis III (1390-1352 BC),Thutmosis III (1437 BC).126 Romioi, Rûm Javan or Yavana, traditionally in Hebrew Yona or Yavana (Ίωνες) Modern and Ancient Family group on a funerary stele from Athens, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages.127 Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.127128 Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture29 and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.129 Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.130 During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.129 This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.129 The cultural changes undergone by the Greeks are, despite a surviving common sense of ethnicity, undeniable.129 At the same time, the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet, certain values, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion, (the word barbarian was used by 12th century historian Anna Komnene to describe non-Greek speakers),131 a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the global political and social changes of the past two millennia.129 Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Greece and Demographics of Cyprus Scenes of marriage and family life in Constantinople. Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic,132 where they constitute 93% of the country's population,133 and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).134 Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; nonetheless, the population of Greece has shown regular increase since the country's first census in 1828.135 A large percentage of the population growth since the state's foundation has resulted from annexation of new territories and the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.135 About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens136 Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the British Empire. Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.137 After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,138139140141142 there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.137 Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.137 There is a sizeable Greek minority of about 105,000 people, in Albania.143 The Greek minority of Turkey, which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.144 This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three thousand year old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.145146 There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the Levant and the Black Sea states, remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora (pre-19th century).147 Diaspora Main article: Greek diaspora The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where Census figures are available, they show around 3 million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus. Estimates provided by the SAE - World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around 7 million worldwide.148 According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University, the number is closer to just below 5 million.149 Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the Omogeneia. Important centres of the New Greek Diaspora today are London, New York, Melbourne and Toronto.147 Recently, the Hellenic Parliament passed a law that enables Diaspora Greeks to vote in the elections of the Greek state.150 Ancient Greek colonization in antiquity. In ancient times, the trading and colonising activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in Sicily and southern Italy, Spain, the south of France and the Black sea coasts.151 Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East, India and in Egypt.151 The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa.152 Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin.70 Modern Greek Diaspora (20th century). During and after the Greek War of Independence, Greeks of the Diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.153 Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in France, Livorno in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt), Russia (Odessa and Saint Petersburg), and Britain (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.154 Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church.154 As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become shippers, financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers.155 With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant, North Africa, India and the USA.155156 In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Germany, and South Africa, especially after the Second World War (1939–45), the Greek Civil War (1946–49), and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974.157 Culture Main article: Culture of Greece Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the Classical period, the Roman and Eastern Roman periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.158159 Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century but nevertheless included cultural exchanges and enriched both cultures.160161162163164 The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.3738 Language Main article: Greek language Ancient Greek Ostracon bearing the name of Cimon. Museum of the Ancient Agora, Athens. Most Greeks speak the Greek language, an Indo-European language that forms a branch itself, with its closest relations being Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian) and the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).127 It has one of the longest documented histories of any language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.165 Several notable literary works, including the Homeric epics, Euclid's Elements and the New Testament, were originally written in Greek. Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages, such as Albanian, Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages (see Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and Turkish origin.166 Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa, a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.167 Modern Greek has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including Cypriot, Pontic, Cappadocian, Griko and Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek).168 Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes, and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greeks in Greece and the Diaspora are bilingual in other languages or dialects such as English, Arvanitika, Aromanian, Macedonian Slavic, Russian and Turkish.127169 Religion Main articles: Religion in ancient Greece and Orthodox Church Papyrus 46 is one of the oldest extant New Testament manuscripts in Greek, written on papyrus, with its 'most probable date' between 175-225. Most Greeks are Christians, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church. During the first centuries after Jesus Christ, the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek, which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.158159 While the Orthodox Church was always intensely hostile to the ancient Greek religion, it did help Greeks keep their sense of identity during the Ottoman rule through its use of Greek in the liturgy and its modest educational efforts.170 There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Greek Catholics, Greek Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews and Greek Muslims. In particular, there are Greek Muslim communities in Tripoli, Lebanon, (7,000 strong) and Al Hamidiyah in Syria, while there is a large community of indeterminate size in the Pontus region, who were spared of the population exchange because of their faith.171 About 2,000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations.172173174 Art Main article: Greek art El Greco's Assumption of the Virgin (1577–1579). Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.175 In the West, ancient Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.175 Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western World.176 In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, whose influence reached as far as Japan.177 Byzantine Greek art, which grew from classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.178 Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East.178179 In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations in classical antiquity and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity during Roman times, while modern Greek art is heavily influenced by Western art.180 Notable Greek artists include Renaissance painter El Greco, soprano Maria Callas, one of the best-selling singers worldwide Nana Mouskouri, and composers Iannis Xenakis, Yanni and Vangelis. Greek Alexandrian Constantine P. Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century. Modern Greek actresses of international notability are Melina Mercouri, Irene Papas and Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou. Science Further information: Greek mathematics, Medicine in ancient Greece, and Byzantine science Nicholas Negroponte. The Greeks of the Classical era made several notable contributions to science and helped lay the foundations of several western scientific traditions, like philosophy, historiography and mathematics. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and other centres of Greek learning while Eastern Roman science was essentially a continuation of classical science.181 Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education).62 Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.182 The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,183 and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world’s first university as well.182 As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.136 Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend Western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.184 Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), Nicholas Negroponte, Constantin Carathéodory, Michael Dertouzos, John Argyris and Dimitri Nanopoulos. Symbols Main articles: Flag of Greece and Double headed eagle Flag of the Palaiologoi, last dynasty of the Roman Empire, today used by the Greek Orthodox Church. The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i thanatos (freedom or death), which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence.185 The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodoxy. The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots, although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority – see flag of Cyprus).186 The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a Greek cross (crux immissa quadrata) on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.187 Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and, later, Eastern Europe.188 It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.189 Surnames See also: Greek name The Greeks were one of the first people in Europe to use surnames and these were widely in use by the 9th century supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father’s name, however Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics.190 Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case. Exceptionally, some end in -ou, indicating the genitive case of this proper noun for patronymic reasons.191 Although surnames in mainland Greece are static today, dynamic and changing patronymic usage survives in middle names where the genitive of father's first name is commonly the middle name. In Cyprus, by contrast, surnames follow the ancient tradition of being given according to the father’s name.192193194 Finally, in addition to Greek-derived surnames many have Turkish, Albanian or Slavic origin.195 With respect to personal names, the two main influences are early Christianity and antiquity. The ancient names were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.196 Sea Main article: Greek shipping The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean, the Black Sea and Ionian coasts of Asia Minor, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily and the south of the Italian peninsula. In Plato's Phaidon, Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live like ants or frogs around a pond".197 This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832. The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.29 Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Marseilles, Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to Iberia and beyond, Nearchus, the 6th century merchant and later monk Cosmas Indicopleustes (Cosmas who sailed to India) and the explorer of the Northwestern passage Juan de Fuca.198199200201 In later times, the Romioi plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Roman Emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.202203 The Greek shipping tradition recovered during Ottoman rule when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.37 Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has the largest merchant fleet in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience.136 The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis, others being Yiannis Latsis, George Livanos, and Stavros Niarchos.204205 A famous Greek poet of the 20th century was the Chinese-born seaman Nikos Kavvadias.206 Timeline The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora. Some key historical events have also been included for context, but this timeline is not intended to cover history not related to migrations. There is more information on the historical context of these migrations in History of Greece. Time Events 3rd millennium BC Proto-Greek tribes form around the Southern Balkans/Aegean. 20th century BC Greek settlements established on the Balkans. Ionians and Aeolians spread over Greece. 17th century BC Decline of the Minoan civilization, possibly because of the eruption of Thera. Emergence of the Achaeans and formation of the Mycenaean civilization. 13th century BC First colonies established in Asia Minor. 11th century BC Dorians move into peninsular Greece. Achaeans flee to Aegean Islands, Asia Minor and Cyprus. 9th century BC Major colonization of Asia Minor and Cyprus by the Greek tribes. 8th century BC First major colonies established in Sicily and Southern Italy. 6th century BC Colonies established across the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. 5th century BC Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in Ionia, the Black Sea and Aegean perimeter culminates in Athenian Empire and the Classical Age of Greece; ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the Peloponesian War 4th century BC Rise of Theban power and defeat of the Spartans; Campaign of Alexander the Great; Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia. 2nd century BC Conquest of Greece by the Roman Empire. Migrations of Greeks to Rome. 4th century AD Eastern Roman Empire. Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towards Constantinople. 7th century Slavic conquest of several parts of Greece, Greek migrations to Southern Italy, Roman Emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to Cappadocia, Bosphorus re-populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks. 8th century Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula. 9th century Retro-migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the Slavic Invasions (mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly). 13th century Roman Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by the Fourth Crusade; becoming the capital of the Latin Empire. Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place. 15th century      - 19th century Conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire. Greek diaspora into Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece. Phanariot Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets. Time Events 1830s Creation of the Modern Greek State. Immigration to the New World begins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place. 1913 European Ottoman lands partitioned; Unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states. 1914–1923 Greek genocide; hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks are estimated to have died during this period.207 1919 Treaty of Neuilly; Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions. 1922 The Destruction of Smyrna (modern-day Izmir) more than 40 thousand Greeks killed, End of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor. 1923 Treaty of Lausanne; Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in Constantinople, Imbros, Tenedos and the Muslim minority of Western Thrace. 1.5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey. 1940s Hundred of thousands Greeks died from starvation during the Axis Occupation of Greece 1947 Communist regime in Romania begins evictions of the Greek community, approx. 75,000 migrate. 1948 Greek Civil War. Tens of thousands of Greek communists and their families flee into Eastern Bloc nations. Thousands settle in Tashkent. 1950s Massive emigration of Greeks to West Germany, the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries. 1955 Istanbul Pogrom against Greeks. Exodus of Greeks from the city accelerates; less than 2,000 remain today. 1958 Large Greek community in Alexandria flees Nasser's regime in Egypt. 1960s Republic of Cyprus created as an independent state under Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues. 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus. Almost all Greeks living in Northern Cyprus flee to the south and the United Kingdom. 1980s Many civil war refugees were allowed to re-emigrate to Greece. Retro-migration of Greeks from Germany begins. 1990s Collapse of Soviet Union. Approx. 100,000 ethnic Greeks migrate from Georgia, Armenia, southern Russia, and Albania to Greece. 2000s Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia. See also Antiochian Greeks Epirotes Karamanlides Maniots Sarakatsani Slavophone Greeks Souliotes Tsakonians Urums List of Ancient Greeks List of Greeks List of Greek Americans Notes a.^ Though there is a range of interpretations; Carl Blegen dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and Robert Drews places the event as late as 1600 BC.208209 A variety of more theories has also been supported,210 but there is a general consensus that the coming of the Greek tribes occurred around 2100 BC. ^ While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from Asia Minor. 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Crossing the Aegean: The Consequences of the 1923 Greek-Turkish Population Exchange (Studies in Forced Migration). Providence: Berghahn Books. p. 29. ISBN 1-57181-562-7.  ^ Sofos, Spyros A.; Özkırımlı, Umut (2008). Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. pp. 116–117. ISBN 1-85065-899-4.  ^ Hershlag, Zvi Yehuda (1997). Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East. Brill Academic Pub. p. 177. ISBN 90-04-06061-8.  ^ Üngör, Uğur Ümit (March 2008). "On Young Turk social engineering in Eastern Turkey from 1913 to 1950". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 15–39. doi:10.1080/14623520701850278. 10.1080/14623520701850278.  ^ "Έλληνες = Ρωμιοί + Αrmâni + Arbëresh". Mackridge, Peter. Ευρωπαϊκή Εταιρεία Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών Γ΄ συνέδριο της Ευρωπαϊκής Εταιρείας Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών (in Greek). http://www.eens-congress.eu/?main__page=1&main__lang=de&eensCongress_cmd=showPaper&eensCongress_id=86. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Mazower (ed.)., M. (2000). After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943-1960. Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0691058423.  ^ "When nettles go ungrasped". The Economist. 11 December 2008. http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12773095. Retrieved 19 December 2008. "To find out what they are, ask any of the Greek-born scholars, entrepreneurs, artists and other talented types who flourish all over the world but recoil at working in their homeland, much as they love it."  ^ Broome, Benjamin J. (1996). Exploring the Greek Mosaic: A Guide to Intercultural Communication in Greece (The Interact Series). Yarmouth, Me: Intercultural Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 1-877864-39-0.  ^ Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez (2005). A History of the Greek Language: From Its Origins to the Present. BRILL. p. xii. ISBN 9004128352.  ^ Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0198140983.  ^ Sfrantzes, George (1477). The Chronicle of the Fall.  ^ Feraios, Rigas. "New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia". ^ Elizabeth Tonkin, Malcolm Kenneth Chapman, Maryon McDonald. History and Ethnicity. Taylor & Francis, 1989, ISBN 0-415-00056-4. ^ Patterson, Cynthia (2001). The Family in Greek History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-674-00568-6.  ^ Michael Psellus (1994). Michaelis Pselli Orationes panegyricae. Stuttgart/Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter. p. 33. ISBN 0-297-82057-5.  ^ Iliad.Book 2,681-685 ^ The Parian marble.Entry No 6:"From when Hellen (Έλλην) [son of] Deucalion became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graekhes were named Hellenes"[1] ^ Apollodorus ^ "The deluge in the time of Deucalion,for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas,the country about Dodona and the Achelous".Aristotle.Meteorologica.I 352,b(Book I part 14)Book 1 Part 14 ^ Homer.Iliad. book 16,233-235:"King Zeus,lord of Dodona,............you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway,where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you." ^ Beekes.entry 6701:Selloi.Greek Etymological Dictionary ^ Online Etymology Dictionary.[2] ^ "Hellen (Έλλην) the patriarch of Hellenes was the son of Deucalion who ruled around Phthia and Pyrrha the only survivors after the great deluge. According to the orders of Zeus when the rain stopped they threw stones (laes) behind them which became men and women. The word laos (people) is derived from laes (stones)".Apollodorus:The library of Greek mythology. A new translation By Robin Hard.Oxford University Press.1987.p.37 ISBN 0-19-283924-1 ^ Online Etymology Dictionary.[3] ^ Online Etymology Dictionary ^ .Graeae (plural of Graea):"The old ones" or "The gray ones". ^ Beekes.Greek etymological dictionary entry 1531 ^ Caskey,John.L (1960):The early Helladic period in Argolis.'Hesperia 29 (3).285--303 ^ Henry George Lidell,Robert Scott.A Greek English Lexicon ^ Homer.Iliad II 574,575 ^ W.Ridgeway,L.Myres.Classical review.vol xvi 1902,p.68,93,135 Classic-Encyclopedia ^ K.J.Beloch.Griechische Geschichte.1:I p,92p88,n I ^ Eduard Meyer.Geschichte des Altertums.112,I(1928) p 251 ^ W.K.Prentice.The Achaeans.American Journal of Archeology 33.2 April 1929 p.206 ^ Jack Martin Balcer and John Matthew.Exploring the European past.p 72-73 Mycenean society and its collapse ^ Robert Drews.The end of the bronze age.Princeton university Press.1993 p.49 ^ Online Etymology Dictionary ^ Julius Pokorny.Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch.Entry 313 ^ Medinet Habu inscription of Ramesses III's 8th year lines 16-17.transl.By John A,Wilson in Pritcard,J.B(ed) Ancient Near East texts relating to the Old Testament,3rd edition,Princeton 1969.p 262 "They made a conspiracy in their islands...Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh" ^ Jack Martin Balcer and John Matthew.Exploring the European past.p 72-74 Mycenean society and its collapse. ^ Amarna letters-localities and their rulers.EA 151 ^ Danu ^ Julius Pokorny.Indogermanisches Etymologisces Woerterbuch. Entry 313 ISBN 0-8288-6602-3 ^ Beekes.Greek etymological dictionary entry 6541 ^ a b c d Adrados, Francisco Rodríguez (2005). A History of the Greek Language: From Its Origins to the Present. BRILL. pp. xii, 3–5. ISBN 9004128352.  ^ Browning, Robert (1983). Medieval and Modern Greek. Cambridge University Press. p. vii. ISBN 0521234883. "The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B.C. Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day. Change there has certainly been. But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages. Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo-Saxon is to the modern Englishman. The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese."  ^ a b c d e Smith, Anthony Robert (1991). National identity. Reno: University of Nevada Press. pp. 29–32. ISBN 0-87417-204-7.  ^ Benjamin, Isaac (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 504. ISBN 0691125988. "Autochthony, being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts, is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers, wherever Greek literature was read."  ^ Comnena, Anna. Alexiad. p. Books 1–15.  ^ 2001 "Census data" (in Greek). Census. www.statistics.gr. 2001. http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1101_SAP_09_TB_DC_01_10_Y.pdf 2001. Retrieved 2009-01-07. dead link ^ "CIA Factbook". US Government. 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html#People. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ 2001 "Census". http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/805CB6E0CF012914C2257122003F3A84/$file/MAIN%20RESULTS-EN.xls?OpenElement 2001. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ a b "Greece, Demography". Encyclopedia Britannica. United States: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. 2008. Online Edition.  ^ a b c "Merchant Marine, Tertiary enrollment by age group". Pocket World in Figures (Economist). London: Economist Books. 2006. p. 150. ISBN 1-86197-825-1.  ^ a b c "Cyprus Demographic trends". Encyclopedia Britannica. United States: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. 2008. Online Edition.  ^ Welz, Gisela (2006). Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History, and an Island in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0253218519.  ^ Linos-Alexandre Sicilianos (2001). The Prevention of Human Rights Violations (International Studies in Human Rights). Berlin: Springer. p. 24. ISBN 90-411-1672-9.  ^ Borowiec, Andrew (2000). Cyprus: a troubled island. New York: Praeger. p. 2. ISBN 0-275-96533-3.  ^ Rezun, Miron (2001). Europe's nightmare: the struggle for Kosovo. New York: Praeger. p. 6. ISBN 0-275-97072-8.  ^ Brown, Neville (2004). Global instability and strategic defence. New York: Routledge. p. 48 isbn=0–415-30413-X. ISBN 041530413X.  ^ "Official site of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol-Report of the minorities in Albania". Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol. http://www.regione.taa.it/biblioteca/minoranze/Albania_d.aspx.  ^ Gilson, George (24 June 2005). "Destroying a minority: Turkey's attack on the Greeks". Athens News. http://www.athensnews.gr/athweb/nathens.print_unique?e=C&f=13136&m=A10&aa=1&eidos=S. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Vryonis, Speros Jr. (2005). The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul. New York: Greekworks. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780974766034.  ^ Birand, Mehmet Ali (7 September 2005). "The shame of Sept. 6-7 is always with us". Hurriyet. http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-559132. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ a b Prevelakis, George. "prevelakis.PDF (application/pdf Object)" (PDF). www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk. http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working%20papers/prevelakis.PDF. Retrieved 2008-12-27.  ^ "Speech by Vasilis Magdalinos". SAE. 29 December 2006. http://www.sae.gr/?id=12566&tag=%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%20%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B7%20%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ "Finis Greciae or the Return of the Greeks? State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation" (PDF). George Prevelakis. Oxford University. http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working%20papers/prevelakis.PDF. Retrieved 27 December 2008.  ^ "Meeting on the exercise of voting rights by foreigners of Greek origin". 15 July 2008. http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/15072008_SB1306.htm. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ a b Boardman, John (1984). The Cambridge Ancient History: Plates to Volume III : the Middle East, the Greek World and the Balkans to the Sixth Century B.C.. Cambridge University Press. pp. 136, 276–278. ISBN 0521242894.  ^ Horden, Peregrine; Peregrine and Purcell, Nicholas (2000). The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Blackwell Publishing. p. 111,128. ISBN 0631218904.  ^ Calotychos, Vangelis (2003). Modern Greece: A Cultural Poetics. Berg Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 1859737161.  ^ a b Baghdiantz McCabe, Ina; Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2000). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Macmillan. p. 147. ISBN 0333600479.  ^ a b Kardasis, Vassilis (2001). Diaspora Merchants in the Black Sea: The Greeks in Southern Russia, 1775-1861. Lexington Books. pp. xvii-xxi. ISBN 0739102451.  ^ Clogg, Richard (2000). "The Greeks in America". The Greek diaspora in the twentieth century. Macmillan. ISBN 0333600479.  ^ Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer. 2004. pp. 85–92. ISBN 0306483211.  ^ a b van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1998). Hellenism, Judaism, Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction. Peeters Publishers. pp. 9–11. ISBN 9042905786.  ^ a b Voegelin, Eric; Ellis Sandoz, Athanasios Moulakis (1997). History of Political Ideas: Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity. University of Missouri Press. pp. 175–179. ISBN 0826211267.  ^ IAGS Official Website, International Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides, Retrieved on 2007-12-15. ^ "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 41–58. February 2008. doi:10.1080/14623520701850286.  ^ Zimmerer, Jürgen, Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jurgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies - introduction". Journal of Genocide Research 10 (1): 7. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820.  ^ Levene, Mark (1998). "Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923". Holocaust and Genocide Studies 12 (3): 393. doi:10.1093/hgs/12.3.393.  ^ Cohn Jatz, Colin Tatz (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide. Essex: Verso. ISBN 1859845509. http://books.google.com/?id=khCffgX1NPIC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&vq=.  ^ "Greek literature". Encyclopedia Britannica. United States: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. 2008. Online Edition.  ^ Winford, Donald (2003). An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 0631212515.  ^ Sarafis, Marion; Martin Eve (1990). Background to Contemporary Greece. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 25. ISBN 0850363934.  ^ Tomic, Olga Miseska (2006). Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features. Springer. p. 703. ISBN 1402044879.  ^ Fasold, Ralph W. (1984). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Blackwell Publishing. p. 160. ISBN 063113462X.  ^ "Greece under Ottoman rule, The role of the Orthodox church". Encyclopedia Britannica. United States: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. 2008. Online Edition.  ^ "Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria" (PDF). Proceedings:II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo. Roula Tsokalidou. http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas2002/05/08.%20Roula%20Tsokalidou.pdf. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Head, James (20 March 2007). "The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct". The New Statesman: p. The Faith Column. http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-faith-column/2007/03/ancient-greek-gods-greece. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ de Quetteville, Harry (8 May 2004). "Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods". The Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/1461311/Modern-Athenians-fight-for-the-right-to-worship-the-ancient-Greek-gods.html. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ "Freedom of Religion in Greece". International Religious Freedom Report. United States Department of State. 2006. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ a b Osborne, Robin (1998). Archaic and classical Greek art. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 0-19-284202-1.  ^ Pollitt, J. J. (1972). Art and experience in classical Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. xii-xv. ISBN 0-521-09662-6.  ^ Puri, Baij Nath (1987). Buddhism in central Asia. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 28–29. ISBN 81-208-0372-8.  ^ a b Mango, Cyril A. (1986). The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453: sources and documents. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. ix-xiv, 183. ISBN 0-8020-6627-5.  ^ "The Byzantine Empire, The lasting glory of its art". The Economist. 4 October 2007. http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9900058. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Bigelow Tarbell, Frank (2008). A History of Greek Art. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 27. ISBN 0554283794.  ^ "Byzantine Medicine — Vienna Dioscurides". Antiqua Medicina. University of Virginia. http://historymedren.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=historymedren&cdn=education&tm=7&f=00&tt=14&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/texte.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-27.  ^ a b "Jerome Bump, University of Constantinople". The Origin of Universities. University of Texas at Austin. http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 189. ISBN 0-872-20563-0.  ^ "University reforms in Greece face student protests". The Economist. 6 July 2006. http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Hinde, Robert A.; Helen Watson (1995). War, a Cruel Necessity?: The Bases of Institutionalized Violence. I.B.Tauris. p. 55. ISBN 1850438242.  ^ "The Flag". Law 851, Gov. Gazette 233, issue A, dated 21/22.12.1978. Presidency of the Hellenic Republic. http://www.presidency.gr/en/shmaia.htm. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ "Older Flags=19 December 2008". Flags of the Greeks (contains an image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag). Skafidas Zacharias. http://users.att.sch.gr/zskafid/simea5a.htm.  ^ Grierson, Philip; Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Hendy, Michael F. (1992). Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. p. 66. ISBN 0-88402-261-7.  ^ "Byzantine Flags". Byzantine Heraldry. François Velde. 1997. http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Wickham, Chris (2005). Framing the early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-19-926449-X.  ^ Chuang, Rueyling; Fong, Mary (2004). Communicating ethnic and cultural identity. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 39. ISBN 0-7425-1738-1.  ^ Kenyon, Sherrilyn (2005). The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook. Cincinnati: Writer's Digest Books. p. 155. ISBN 1-58297-295-8.  ^ Hart, Anne (2004). Search Your Middle Eastern And European Genealogy: In The Former Ottoman Empire's Records And Online. ASJA Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-595-31811-8.  ^ "Main page". Database of Greek surnames. Dimitrios J.. http://www.dimitri.8m.com/surnames.html. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Koliopoulos, Giannes (1987). Brigands with a cause: brigandage and irredentism in modern Greece, 1821-1912. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon. pp. xii. ISBN 0-19-822863-5.  ^ "The Transition of Modern Greek Names". Lexicon of Greek Personal Names. Oxford University. http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/modern.html. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Plato. Phaidon. p. 109c. "ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας"  ^ Casson, Lionel (1991). The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. p. 124. ISBN 0-691-01477-9.  ^ Hubert, Henri (1985). Rise of the Celts. Biblo-Moser. ISBN 0-8196-0183-7.  ^ Winstedt, Eric Otto (2008). The Christian Topography Of Cosmas Indicopleustes. Forbes Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 1-4097-9996-4.  ^ Withey, Lynne (1989). Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-520-06564-6.  ^ Holmes, George (2001). The Oxford history of medieval Europe. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–32. ISBN 0-19-280133-3.  ^ Postan, Cynthia; Miller, Edward (1966). The Cambridge economic history of Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–166. ISBN 0-521-08709-0.  ^ Blyth, Myrna (12 August 2004). "Greek Tragedy, The life of Aristotle Onassis". National Review Online. http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDRjYzJhMWI5ZjE3ZmNmOWQ0YWEyNjBkYmI1MjhiODI=. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ Smith, Helena (6 October 2006). "Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis's life". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/oct/06/arts.artsnews. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ "The sea in Greek tradition". Eleuthero Vima. 20 March 2003. http://www.eleftherovima.gr/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?newsid1048170154,681. Retrieved 19 December 2008.  ^ R. J. Rummel. "Statistics of Democide". Chapter 5, Statistics Of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources. http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM. Retrieved 2006-10-04.  ^ Bryce 2006, p. 92 ^ Drews 1994, p. 21 ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 243 References Encyclopedia Britannica. United States: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.. 2008. Online Edition.  The Columbia Encyclopedia. United States: Columbia University Press.. 2008. Online Edition.  Pocket World in Figures (Economist). London: Economist Books. 2006. ISBN 1-86197-825-1.  Bryce, Trevor (2006). The Trojans and their neighbours. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0415349559. http://books.google.com/?id=5YV6hwUmTpYC&dq. Retrieved 2009-08-23.  Cadogan, Gerald; Langdon Caskey, John (1986). The End of the Early Bronze Age in the Aegean. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004073094. http://books.google.com/?id=jDrKSZ6zVPUC&dq.  Drews, Robert (1994). The coming of the Greeks: Indo-European conquests in the Aegean and the Near East. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691029512. http://books.google.com/?id=fcVIcaJxgdUC&dq.  Griffin, Jasper; Boardman, John; Murray, Oswyn (2001). The Oxford history of Greece and the Hellenistic world. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280137-6.  Kaldellis, Anthony (2008). Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition (Greek Culture in the Roman World). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-87688-5.  Mallory, James; Adams, Douglas (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. New York: Routledge. ISBN 1884964982. http://books.google.com/?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&dq.  Mango, Cyril A. (2002). The Oxford history of Byzantium. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.  Mazower, Mark (2002). The Balkans : A Short History. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0-8129-6621-X.  Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. London: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-77269-3.  Roberts, J.M. (2007). The New Penguin History of the World. Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 0-14-103042-9.  Smith, Anthony Robert (1991). National identity. Reno: University of Nevada Press. ISBN 0-87417-204-7.  Sofos, Spyros A.; Özkırımlı, Umut (2008). Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. ISBN 1-85065-899-4.  Veremis, Thanos; Koliopoulos, John S. (2007). Greece: The Modern Sequel. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. ISBN 1-85065-463-8.  Further reading Mycenaean Greeks Castleden, Rodney (2005). Mycenaeans. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36336-5.  Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6.  Mountjoy, P.A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A Guide to Identification. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73. Göteborg: Paul Åströms Forlag. ISBN 91-86098-32-2.  Mylonas, George E. (1966). Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton UP. ISBN 0-691-03523-7.  Tandy, David W. (2001). Prehistory and history: ethnicity, class and political economy. Montréal: Black Rose Books. ISBN 1-55164-188-7.  Classical Greeks Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek religion: archaic and classical. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15624-0.  Cartledge, Paul (2002). The Greeks: a portrait of self and others. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280388-3.  Freeman, Charles (2004). Egypt, Greece, and Rome: civilizations of the ancient Mediterranean. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926364-7.  Finkelberg, Margalit (2005). Greeks and pre-Greeks: Aegean prehistory and Greek heroic tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85216-1.  Hall, Jonathan M. (2000). Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78999-0.  Hall, Jonathan M. (2002). Hellenicity: between ethnicity and culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31329-8.  MacKendrick, Paul Lachlan (1981). The Greek stones speak: the story of archaeology in Greek lands. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-30111-7.  Malkin, Irad (2001). Ancient perceptions of Greek ethnicity. Washington, D.C: Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University. ISBN 0-674-00662-3.  Malkin, Irad (1998). The returns of Odysseus: colonization and ethnicity. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21185-5.  Walbank, F. W. (1985). Selected papers: studies in Greek and Roman history and historiography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30752-X.  Hellenistic Greeks Boardman, John; Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray (2001). The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192801376.  Chamoux, François (2003). Hellenistic civilization. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22242-1.  Grant, Michael (1990). The Hellenistic Greeks: from Alexander to Cleopatra. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-82057-5.  Per Bilde (1997). Conventional Values of the Hellenistic Greeks (Studies in Hellenistic Civilization ; Vol. VIII) (Pt. 8). Aarhus Univ Pr. ISBN 87-7288-555-6.  Roman Greeks Ahrweiler, Hélène (1975). L'idéologie politique de l'Empire byzantin. Presses universitaires de France.  Harris, Jonathan (2007). Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon Continuum). Hambledon & London. ISBN 1-84725-179-X.  Kazhdan, Alexander P. (1991). The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504652-8.  Laiou, Angeliki E.; Ahrweiler, Hélène (1998). Studies on the internal diaspora of the Byzantine Empire. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. ISBN 0-88402-247-1.  Runciman, Steven (1966). Byzantine Civilisation. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.. ISBN 1-56619-574-8.  Toynbee, Arnold J. (1972). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215253-X.  Ottoman Greeks Davis, Jack E.; Fariba Zarinebaf; Bennet, John (2005). A historical and economic geography of Ottoman Greece: the southwestern Morea in the 18th century. Princeton, N.J: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 0-87661-534-5.  Davis, Jack E.; Davies, Siriol (2007). Between Venice and Istanbul: colonial landscapes in early modern Greece. Princeton, N.J: American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ISBN 0-87661-540-X.  Issawi, Charles Philip; Gondicas, Dimitri (1999). Ottoman Greeks in the age of nationalism: politics, economy, and society in the nineteenth century. Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-096-0.  Jackson, Marvin R.; Lampe, John R. (1982). Balkan economic history, 1550-1950: from imperial borderlands to developing nations. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-30368-0.  Modern Greeks Katerina Zacharia (2008). Hellenisms: culture, identity, and ethnicity from antiquity to modernity. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-6525-9.  Clogg, Richard (2002). A concise history of Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00479-9.  Herzfeld, Michael (1982). Ours once more: folklore, ideology, and the making of modern Greece. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-76018-3.  Holden, David (1972). Greece without columns; the making of the modern Greeks. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-397-00779-5.  Karakasidou, Anastasia N. (1997). Fields of wheat, hills of blood: passages to nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870-1990. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-42494-4.  Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). The Greeks and their heritages. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-215256-4.  Trudgill, Peter (2001). Sociolinguistic variation and change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1515-6.  Yannakakis, Eleni; Mackridge, Peter (1997). Ourselves and others: the development of a Greek Macedonian identity since 1912. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 1-85973-133-3.  External links Find more about Greeks on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Wiktionary Images and media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Omogenia World Council of Hellenes Abroad (SAE), Umbrella Diaspora Organization Religious Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria Church of Greece Academic Transnational Communities Programme at the University of Oxford, includes papers on the Greek Diaspora Greeks on Greekness: The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire. The Modern Greek Studies Association is a scholarly organization for modern Greek studies in North America, which publishes the Journal of Modern Greek Studies. The Got Greek? 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