Not to be confused with Hyphen or Minus sign. This article is about the punctuation mark. For other uses, see Dash (disambiguation). For Wikipedia's house style on dashes, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Dashes. This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. – Punctuation apostrophe ( ’ ' ) brackets ( [ ], ( ), { }, ⟨ ⟩ ) colon ( : ) comma ( , ) dash ( ‒, –, —, ― ) ellipsis ( …, ... ) exclamation mark ( ! ) full stop/period ( . ) guillemets ( « » ) hyphen ( -, ‐ ) question mark ( ? ) quotation marks ( ‘ ’, “ ” ) semicolon ( ; ) slash/stroke ( / ) solidus ( ⁄ ) Word dividers space ( ) ( ) ( ) (␠) (␢) (␣) interpunct ( · ) General typography ampersand ( & ) at sign ( @ ) asterisk ( * ) backslash ( \ ) bullet ( • ) caret ( ^ ) copyright symbol ( © ) currency (generic) ( ¤ ) currency (specific) ₳ ฿ ₵ ¢ ₡ ₢ ₠ $ ₫ ₹ ৳ ₯ € ƒ ₣ ₲ ₴ ₭ ℳ ₥ ₦ ₧ ₱ ₰ £ ₨ ₪ ₸ ₮ ₩ ¥ ៛ dagger ( †, ‡ ) degree ( ° ) ditto mark ( 〃 ) inverted exclamation mark ( ¡ ) inverted question mark ( ¿ ) number sign/pound/hash ( # ) numero sign ( № ) ordinal indicator ( º, ª ) percent etc. ( %, ‰, ‱ ) pilcrow ( ¶ ) prime ( ′, ″, ‴ ) registered trademark ( ® ) section sign ( § ) service mark ( ℠ ) sound recording copyright ( ℗ ) tilde ( ~ ) trademark ( ™ ) underscore/understrike ( _ ) vertical/broken bar, pipe ( |, ¦ ) Uncommon typography asterism ( ⁂ ) tee ( ⊤ ) up tack ( ⊥ ) index/fist ( ☞ ) therefore sign ( ∴ ) because sign ( ∵ ) interrobang ( ‽ ) irony & sarcasm punctuation ( ⸮ ) lozenge ( ◊ ) reference mark ( ※ ) tie ( ⁀ ) view · talk · A dash is a punctuation mark. It is similar in appearance to a hyphen, but a dash is longer and it is used differently. The most common versions of the dash are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—). Contents 1 Common dashes 1.1 Figure dash 1.2 En dash 1.2.1 Ranges of values 1.2.2 Relationships and connections 1.2.3 Attributive compounds and prefixes 1.2.4 Usage guidelines 1.2.5 Parenthetic and other uses at the sentence level 1.2.6 Electronic usage 1.3 Em dash 1.4 En dash versus em dash 1.5 Horizontal bar 1.6 Swung dash 2 Similar characters 3 Rendering dashes on computers 4 References 5 External links Common dashes There are several forms of dash, of which the most common are: glyph Unicode1 HTML2 HTML/XML3 TeX Windows Char Codes Mac Keyboard Codes figure dash ‒ U+2012 (8210) none ‒ or ‒ or - none ALT + 0045 en dash – U+2013 (8211) – – or – -- ALT + 0150 Option + - em dash — U+2014 (8212) — — or — --- ALT + 0151 Shift + Option + - horizontal bar ― U+2015 (8213) none ― or ― none swung dash ⁓ U+2053 (8275) none ⁓ or ⁓ \~{} Less common are the two-em dash (⸺) and three-em dash (⸻). Figure dash The figure dash (‒) is so named because it is the same width as a digit, at least in fonts with digits of equal width (which is true of most fonts, not only monospaced fonts). The figure dash is used when a dash must be used within numbers. This does not indicate a range (for which the en dash is used), or function as the minus sign (which also has its own glyph).

The figure dash is often unavailable; in this case, one may use a hyphen-minus instead. In Unicode, the figure dash is U+2012 (decimal 8210). HTML authors must use the numeric forms ‒ or ‒ to type it unless the file is in Unicode; there is no equivalent character entity. In TeX, the standard fonts have no figure dash; however, the digits normally all have the same width as the en dash, so an en dash can be substituted when using standard TeX fonts. En dash The en dash, n dash, n-rule, or "nut", (–) is traditionally half the width of an em dash.45 In modern fonts, the length of the en dash is not standardized, and the en dash is often more than half the width of the em dash.6 Some sources specify en dash and em dash widths equal to the capital N and M widths,78 and others to the lower-case n and m widths.69 Ranges of values The en dash is commonly used to indicate a closed range (a range with clearly defined and non-infinite upper and lower boundaries) of values, such as those between dates, times, or numbers.10111213 Some examples of this usage: June–July 1967 1:00–2:00 p.m. For ages 3–5 pp. 38–55 President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981) The Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) recommends that the word to be used instead of an en dash when a number range might be misconstrued as subtraction, such as a range of units. For example, "a voltage of 50 V to 100 V" rather than "a voltage of 50–100 V". It is also considered inappropriate to use the en dash in place of the words to or and in phrases that follow the forms from ... to ... and between ... and ....1112 Relationships and connections The en dash can also be used to contrast values, or illustrate a relationship between two things.1013 Some examples of this usage: Miami beat Kansas 31–0. New York–London flight (though some sources say that New York to London flight is more appropriate because New York is a single name composed of two valid words; with a dash the phrase is ambiguous and could mean either Flight from New York to London or New flight from York to London13) Mother–daughter relationship The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision. The McCain–Feingold bill A "simple" attributive compound is written with a hyphen; at least one authority considers name pairs where the paired elements carry equal weight, as in the Taft-Hartley Act to be "simple",11 while other consider an en dash appropriate there1415 to represent the parallel relationship, as in the McCain–Feingold bill or Bose–Einstein statistics. (However, truly compound names are written with a hyphen, thus the Lennard-Jones potential is named after one person, while Bose and Einstein are two people.) This usage may be disambiguating; for example, the Chattanooga News-Free Press reads as if it is news-free, when an en dash would make it clearer that it is a union of the Chattanooga News and the Chattanooga Free Press. In many cases, however, including this one, it may be preferable to reword and avoid the problem altogether. The Chicago Manual of Style limits the use of the en dash to two main purposes: to indicate ranges of time, money, or other amounts (or in certain other cases where it replaces the word to); and in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective when one of the elements of the adjective is an open compound or when one of the elements is already hyphenated.16 That is, the Chicago Manual of Style rules specify en dash in these: Miami beat Notre Dame 31–30. New York–London flight. The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision.

but hyphens in these: Mother-daughter relationship The McCain-Feingold bill Taft-Hartley Act Bose-Einstein statistics Attributive compounds and prefixes The en dash may be used instead of a hyphen in compound attributives in which one or both elements is itself a compound:1112 The pro-conscription–anti-conscription debate The hospital–nursing home connection (the connection between the hospital and the nursing home, not a home connection between the hospital and nursing) A nursing home–home care policy Prefixes normally takes hyphens, not en dashes. For example, while the France–Germany border is commonly dashed, the Franco-Prussian War is hyphenated, as Franco- is not a separate name but a prefix for France. However, when prefixing a compound word, an en dash may be used: The non–San Francisco part of the world The post–World War II era (but: the post-war era) Trans–New Guinea languages The ex–prime minister This is generally avoided as a distraction in the case of hyphenated compounds: Proto-Indo-European language (rarely Proto–Indo-European) The post-MS-DOS era (rarely post–MS-DOS) Similarly non-government-owned corporations, semi-labor-intensive industries, etc. Usage guidelines The en dash is used instead of a hyphen in compound adjectives for which neither part of the adjective modifies the other; that is, when each is modifying the noun. This is common in science, when names compose an adjective as in Bose–Einstein condensate. Compare this with "award-winning novel" in which "award" modifies "winning" and together they modify "novel". Contrast "Franco-Prussian War", "Anglo-Saxon", etc., in which the first element does not strictly modify the second, but a hyphen is still normally used because the two elements behave as a single compound term. The Chicago Manual of Style recognizes but does not mandate this usage and uses a hyphen in Bose-Einstein condensate.16 En dashes normally do not have spaces around them. An exception is made when avoiding spaces may cause confusion or look odd (e.g., 12 June – 3 July; contrast 12 June–3 July).17 However, in rare situations when an en dash is unavailable—such as when using typewriters or character encodings not including the en dash character—it may be substituted with a hyphen-minus with a single space on each side (" - "). Parenthetic and other uses at the sentence level Like em dashes, en dashes can be used instead of colons, or pairs of commas that mark off a nested clause or phrase. They can also be used around parenthetical expressions – such as this one – in place of the em dashes preferred by some publishers, particularly where short columns are used, since em dashes can look awkward at the end of a line. See En dash versus em dash, below. In these situations, en dashes must have a single space on each side. Electronic usage In Unicode, the en dash is U+2013 (decimal 8211). In HTML, one may use the numeric forms – or –; there is also an HTML entity –. In TeX, the en dash may normally (depending on the font) be input as a double hyphen-minus (--). On a computer running the Mac OS X operating system, most keyboard layouts map an en dash to ⌥-hyphen. On Microsoft Windows, an en dash may be entered as Alt+0150 (where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding down the Alt key). In Linux (GTK+ v. 2.10+ applications only, see Unicode input), it is entered by holding down Ctrl+Shift and typing U followed by the Unicode code point above.

The en dash is sometimes used as a substitute for the minus sign, when the minus sign character is not available, since the en dash is usually the same width as a plus sign. For example, the original 8-bit Macintosh character set had an en dash, useful for minus sign, years before Unicode with a dedicated minus sign was available. The hyphen-minus is usually too narrow to make a typographically acceptable minus sign. But the en dash cannot be used for a minus in programming languages because the syntax usually requires a hyphen-minus; because programming languages are usually set in a fixed-pitch (monospaced) font face, the hyphen-minus looks acceptable there. Em dash The em dash (—), m dash, m-rule, or "mutton", often demarcates a break of thought or some similar interpolation (stronger than the interpolation demarcated by parentheses) such as the following from Nicholson Baker's The Mezzanine: At that age I once stabbed my best friend, Fred, with a pair of pinking shears in the base of the neck, enraged because he had been given the comprehensive sixty-four-crayon Crayola box—including the gold and silver crayons—and would not let me look closely at the box to see how Crayola had stabilized the built-in crayon sharpener under the tiers of crayons. It is also used to indicate that a sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. For example, the em dash is used in the following way in Joseph Heller's Catch-22: He was Cain, Ulysses, the Flying Dutchman; he was Lot in Sodom, Deirdre of the Sorrows, Sweeney in the nightingales among trees. He was the miracle ingredient Z-147. He was— "Crazy!" Clevinger interrupted, shrieking. "That's what you are! Crazy!" "—immense. I'm a real, slam-bang, honest-to-goodness, three-fisted humdinger. I'm a bona fide supraman." Similarly, it can be used instead of an ellipsis to indicate aposiopesis, the rhetorical device by which a sentence is stopped short not because of interruption but because the speaker is too emotional to continue, such as Darth Vader's line "I sense something, a presence I have not felt since—" in Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. The term em dash derives from its defined width of one em, which is the length, expressed in points, by which font sizes are typically specified. Thus in 9-point type, an em is 9 points wide, while the em of 24-point type is 24 points wide, and so on. (By comparison, the en dash, with its 1-en width, is ½ em wide in most fonts.18) The em dash is used in much the way a colon or a set of parentheses is used; it can show an abrupt change in thought or be used where a full stop (or "period") is too strong and a comma too weak. Em dashes are sometimes used in lists or definitions, but that is a style guide issue; a colon is often recommended for use instead. According to most American sources (e.g., The Chicago Manual of Style) and to some British sources (e.g., The Oxford Guide to Style), an em dash should always be set closed (not surrounded by spaces). But the practice in some parts of the English-speaking world, including the style recommended by The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage (because of the narrow width of newspaper columns), sets it open (separates it from its surrounding words by using spaces or hair spaces (U+200A)) when it is being used parenthetically. Some writers, finding the em dash unappealingly long, prefer to use an open-set en dash. This "space, en dash, space" sequence is also the predominant style in German and French typography. See En dash versus em dash below.

In Canada, The Canadian Style [A Guide to Writing and Editing], The Oxford Canadian of Grammar, Spelling & Punctuation, Guide to Canadian English Usage [Second Edition], Editing Canadian English Manual, and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary are all defined NO SPACE before or after em dashes when they are inserted between words, a word and numeral, or two numerals. In Australia, the Style manual [For authors, editors and printers, Sixth edition], also defines NO SPACE before or after em dashes when inserted between words, a word and numeral, or two numerals. A section on the 2-em rule (——) also explains that the 2-em can be used to mark an abrupt break in direct or reported speech, but a space is used before the 2-em if a complete word is missing, while no space is used if part of a word exists before the sudden break. Two examples include:      I distinctly heard him say, 'Go away or I'll ——'. and      It was alleged that D—— had been threatened with blackmail. (Note: properly typeset 2-em and 3-em dashes look like a single dash, but they may show with space between the dashes when viewed on this page.) Monospaced fonts (such as Courier) that mimic the look of a typewriter have the same width for all characters. Some of these fonts have em and en dashes which more or less fill the monospaced width they have available. For example, the sequence hyphen, en dash, em dash, minus will show as "- – — −" in a monospace font. Typewriters often only have a single hyphen glyph, so it is common to use two monospace hyphens strung together (--) to serve as an em dash. When an actual em dash is unavailable—as in the ASCII character set—a double ("--") or triple hyphen-minus ("---") is used. In Unicode, the em dash is U+2014 (decimal 8212). In HTML, one may use the numeric forms — or —; there is also the HTML entity —. In TeX, the em dash may normally be input as a triple hyphen-minus (---). On any Mac, most keyboard layouts map an em dash to Shift-Option-hyphen. On Microsoft Windows, an em dash may be entered as Alt+0151, where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding the Alt key down. It can also be entered into Microsoft Office applications by using the Ctrl-Alt-hyphen combination. En dash versus em dash The en dash is wider than the hyphen but not as wide as the em dash. An em width is the point size of the currently used font, since the M character is not always the width of the point size.19 In running text, various dash conventions are employed: an em dash—like so—or a spaced em dash — like so — or a spaced en dash – like so – can be seen in contemporary publications. Various style guides and national varieties of languages prescribe different guidance on dashes. For example, "Dashes are treated differently in the US and UK. In the US, an em-dash with no additional spacing is used. In the UK a spaced en-dash is preferred."20 As an example of the US style, The Chicago Manual of Style still recommend unspaced em dashes. Style guides outside of the US tend to diverge from this guidance. For example, the Canadian The Elements of Typographic Style recommends the spaced en dash – like so – and argues that the length and visual magnitude of an em dash "belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography."citation needed In the United Kingdom, the spaced en dash is the house style for certain major publishers. Examples include the Penguin Group, the Cambridge University Press, and Routledge. But this convention is not universal in the UK. The Oxford Guide to Style (2002, section 5.10.10) acknowledges that the spaced en dash is used by "other British publishers", but states that the Oxford University Press—like 'most US publishers'—uses the unspaced em dash.

The en dash (always with spaces, in running text) and the spaced em dash both have a certain technical advantage over the unspaced em dash. In most typesetting and most word processing, the spacing between words is expected to be variable, so there can be full justification. Alone among punctuation that marks pauses or logical relations in text, the unspaced em dash disables this for the words between which it falls. This can lead to uneven spacing in the text, but can be mitigated by the use of thin spaces, hair spaces, or even zero width spaces on the sides of the em dash. This provides the appearance of an unspaced em dash, but allows the words and dashes to break between lines. En dashes may be preferred to em dashes when text is set in narrow columns (as in newspapers and similar publications), due to the fact that the en dash is smaller. In such cases, use of the en dash is based purely on space considerations and is not necessarily related to other typographical concerns. The spaced em dash risks introducing excessive separation of words. In full justification, the adjacent spaces may be stretched, and the separation of words further exaggerated. Horizontal bar The horizontal bar or quotation dash (―) is used to introduce quoted text. This is the standard method of printing dialogue in some languages (see the quotation dash section of the Quotation mark, non-English usage article for further details of how it is used). The em dash is equally suitable if the quotation dash is unavailable or is contrary to the house's style. In Unicode, the quotation dash is U+2015 (decimal 8213). In HTML, it can be input only with the numeric form, ― or ―; there is no equivalent character entity. But for Web pages one generally uses the em dash. There is no support in the standard TeX fonts, but one can use \hbox{---}\kern-.5em--- instead (or just use an em dash). The Chicago Manual of Style says about this usage: “Em dashes are occasionally used instead of quotation marks (mainly by French writers) to set off dialogue.” However, it makes no mention of the horizontal bar or the quotation dash. Swung dash Main article: Tilde#Punctuation The swung dash (⁓ or ~) resembles a lengthened tilde, and is used to separate alternatives or approximates. In dictionaries, it is frequently used to stand in for the term being defined. A dictionary entry providing an example for the term henceforth might employ the swung dash as follows: henceforth (adv.) from this time forth; from now on; "⁓ she will be known as Mrs. Wales" There are several similar, related characters: SWUNG DASH ⁓ (U+2053) used in Western typography and lexicography. In HTML this character can be expressed solely in numeric form (⁓ or ⁓). TILDE OPERATOR ∼ (U+223C) used in mathematics. In TeX and LaTeX this character can be expressed using the math mode command ($\sim$). WAVE DASH 〜 (U+301C) used in East Asian typography for a variety of purposes, including Japanese punctuation. FULLWIDTH TILDE ～ (U+FF5E) also, and more commonly, used in East Asian typography. Similar characters There are several characters which resemble dashes but have different meanings and uses. These include (though by no means are restricted to): The hyphen-minus (-), Unicode U+002D, is the standard ASCII hyphen. Sometimes this is used in groups to indicate different types of dash. The tilde (~), U+007E, is a diacritic mark. The underscore (_), U+005F, is either a diacritic mark, or a character replacing a standard space. The macron (¯), U+00AF, is another diacritic mark. The soft hyphen, U+00AD, is used to indicate where a line may break, as in a compound word or between syllables. The hyphen (‐), U+2010, is the character that can be used to unambiguously represent a hyphen. The hyphen bullet (⁃), U+2043, is a short horizontal line used as a list bullet. The minus sign (−), U+2212, −, is an arithmetic operation used in mathematics to represent subtraction or negative numbers. The wave dash (〜), U+301C, and the wavy dash (〰), U+3030, are wavy lines found in some East Asian character sets. Typographically, they have the width of one CJK character cell (fullwidth form), and follow the direction of the text (horizontal for horizontal text, vertical for columnar). They are used as dashes, and occasionally as emphatic variants of the katakana vowel extender mark. The Armenian hyphen (֊), U+058A, is a hyphen from the Armenian alphabet. The Hebrew maqaf (־), U+05BE, is a hyphen-like character from the Hebrew alphabet. The Mongolian todo hyphen (᠆), U+1806, is a hyphen from the Mongolian alphabetdisambiguation needed. The Hangul Jungseong Eu (ㅡ U+3161 or ᅳ U+1173) is used in Korean to indicate the sound [ɨ]. The Japanese chōonpu (ー), U+30FC, is used in Japanese to indicate a long vowel. The Chinese character for "one" (一), U+4E00, is used in various East Asian languages. Rendering dashes on computers

Typewriters and early computers have traditionally had only a limited character set, often having no key with which to produce a dash. In consequence, it became common to substitute the nearest available punctuation mark or symbol. Em dashes are often represented by a pair of spaces surrounding a single hyphen-minus (typical British usage) or by a pair of spaces surrounding two hyphen-minuses (mostly in the United States). Modern computer software typically has support for many more characters, and is usually capable of rendering both the en and em dashes correctly—albeit sometimes with a little inconvenience for the user who has to input them. Some software, though, may operate in a more limited mode. Some text editors, for example, are restricted to working with a single 8-bit character encoding, and when unencodable characters are entered (e.g., by pasting from the clipboard), they are often blindly converted to question marks. Sometimes this happens to em and en dashes, even when the 8-bit encoding supports them, or when an alternative representation using hyphen-minuses would seem to be an option. Any kind of dash can manifest directly in an HTML document, but HTML also allows them to be entered as character entity references. The entity names for the em dash and the en dash are mdash and ndash; therefore, they can be referenced in HTML as — and –. The equivalent numeric character references are — and –. Nearly all web browsers and operating systems used today are capable of rendering the numeric form, and almost as many correctly display the named form. In Unicode, the figure dash, en dash, em dash, quotation dash, and swung dash correspond to hexadecimal character codes: U+2012, U+2013, U+2014, U+2015, and U+2053, respectively. In Linux, under recent versions of GTK+, there are various methods of producing these dashes. For em dashes, one may use the compose key followed by three presses of the hyphen character. For en dashes, one may press the compose key followed by two hyphens and a period. For all dashes, one may press and hold ctrl and shift and then press u (and release them all) after which an underlined u will appear: then type the Unicode number (i.e. such as 2015) for the appropriate dash and press enter or the space bar. Also, dashes may be emulated by remapping other keys. In Mac OS using the Australian, British, Canadian, German, Irish, Irish Extended, Italian, Pro Italian, Russian, U.S., or U.S. Extended keyboard layout, an en dash can be obtained by typing option-hyphen, while an em dash can be typed with option-shift-hyphen. In TeX, an em dash is typed as three hyphens ("---"), an en dash as two hyphens ("--"), and a hyphen-minus as one hyphen ("-"). Mathematical minus is signified as "$-$" or "\(-\)". On Plan 9 systems, an en or em dash may be entered by pressing the Compose key (usually left Alt), followed by typing en or em respectively. In Microsoft Windows running on a computer whose keyboard has a numeric keypad, an en or em dash may be typed into most text areas by using their respective Alt code by holding down the Alt key and pressing either 0150 or 0151. The numbers must be typed on the numeric keypad with Num Lock enabled. In addition, the Character Map utility included with Windows can be used to copy and paste en and em dash characters (as well as accented letters and other non-English language characters) into most applications. It is usually in the Programs → Accessories → System Tools folder (or the Accessories folder on Windows Vista). Character Map can also be opened by typing charmap in the run command box. In Microsoft Word running on a computer whose keyboard has a numeric keypad, an em dash can be typed with ctrl + alt + numeric hyphen (on the numeric keypad, usually in the top-right corner), and an en dash can be typed with ctrl + numeric hyphen. This will not work with the hyphen key on the main keyboard (usually between "0" and "="), which has completely different functions. Microsoft Word's default settings (both Windows and Macintosh versions), an em dash symbol (not always a true em dash from the font) is automatically produced by Autocorrect when two unspaced hyphens are entered between words ("word--word"). An en dash (again, not always a true en dash from the font) is automatically produced when one or two hyphens surrounded by spaces are entered: ("word — word") or ("word -- word"). This feature can be disabled by customizing Autocorrect. Other dashes, spaces, and special characters are possible, found through Tools → Customize... → Keyboard... → Common Symbols. Unassigned symbols (such as the true minus sign) can be assigned keyboard shortcuts through Insert → Symbol... → (select desired symbol) → Shortcut key... . To determine if the true en or em dash from the font are being used rather than a cross-referenced character from the Symbol font, copy and paste samples of the dashes into a text editor such as Windows Notepad. Using the true dash is important if one ever needs to share documents with other users in other applications or operating systems.

In professionally printed documents, a typographer sometimes adds thin space, hair space, or, rarely, a full inter-word space, on either side of an em dash. In HTML it is possible to generate a thin space using the numeric character reference   or the named entity  , and a hair space using the numeric character reference code  , but current-generation web browsers are not uniformly supportive of this character, and may render it incorrectly. References ^ Characters in Unicode are referenced in prose via the "U+" notation. The hexadecimal number after the "U+" is the character's Unicode code point. The decimal equivalent is shown in parentheses. ^ Specifically, the predefined character entity reference that can be used in an HTML document in place of a literal dash. ^ Specifically, the numeric character reference that can be used in an HTML or XML document in place of a literal dash. ^ John Southward (1884). Practical printing: a handbook of the art of typography (2nd ed.). J.M. Powell & Son. p. 7. http://books.google.com/books?id=J7syAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA7.  ^ Michael Spivak (1980). The joy of TEX: a gourmet guide to typesetting with the AMS-TEX macro package (2nd ed.). AMS Bookstore. p. 8. ISBN 9780821829974. http://books.google.com/books?id=UgxjqoQgUncC&pg=PA8.  ^ a b Ilene Strizver (2010). Type Rules: The Designer's Guide to Professional Typography (3rd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 200. ISBN 9780470542514. http://books.google.com/books?id=SkM9llXtNAkC&pg=PA200.  ^ Susan E. L. Lake and Karen Bean (2007). Digital Multimedia: The Business of Technology (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 128. ISBN 9780538445276. http://books.google.com/books?id=S2OgxFuGYpcC&pg=PT138.  ^ Nigel French (2006). InDesign type: professional typography with Adobe InDesign CS2. Adobe Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780321385444. http://books.google.com/books?id=l_YJY3JalQgC&pg=PA72.  ^ Edward D. Johnson (1991). The handbook of good English. Simon and Schuster. p. 335. ISBN 9780671707972. http://books.google.com/books?id=n0IJ8GcdJ6IC&pg=PA335.  ^ a b Griffith, Benjamin W., et al. (2004). Pocket Guide to Correct Grammar. Barron's Pocket Guides. Woodbury, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 0-7641-2690-3.  ^ a b c d Judd, Karen (2001). Copyediting: A Practical Guide. Menlo Park, Calif: Crisp Publications. ISBN 1-56052-608-4.  ^ a b c Loberger, Gordon; Kate Shoup Welsh (2001). Webster's new world English grammar handbook. New York: Hungry Minds. ISBN 0-7645-6488-9.  ^ a b c Ives, George B. (1921). Text, Type and Style: A Compendium of Atlantic Usage. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press.  ^ Garner, B: Modern American Usage, Second Edition, page 657. Oxford University Press, 2003. ^ Bryan A. Garner (2001). Legal writing in plain English : a text with exercises. Chicago guides to writing, editing, and publishing (illustrated, reprinted ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 155. ISBN 0226284182, 9780226284187. http://books.google.es/books?id=reZf9nzoiSQC. "6.1 Use an en-dash as an equivalent of to (as when showing a span of pages), to express tenssion of difference, or to denote a pairing in which the elements carry equal weight."  ^ a b The Chicago Manual of Style (15th Edition ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2003. pp. 261–265. ISBN 0-226-10403-6.  ^ Shaw, Harry (1986). Errors in English and Ways to Correct Them. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. p. 185. ISBN 0-06-097047-2.  ^ Ritter, R.M. (2002). The Oxford Guide to Style. Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0198691750. "The en rule is, as its name indicates, an en in length, which makes it longer than a hyphen and half the length of an em rule."  ^ "A glossary of typographic terms". Adobe. http://www.adobe.com/uk/type/topics/glossary.html#ememspaceemquad. Retrieved 2007-10-18.  ^ Will Hill, The Complete Typographer: A Foundation Course for Graphic Designers Working With Type, 3rd Edition. 2010. Thames and Hudson. 978-0-500-28894-8 External links This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Peter K. 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