This article is about the preparation of food by heating. For general food preparation, see Food preparation. Modern fruit salad and a Russian cigarette stuffed with cottage cheese Cooking is the process of preparing food with heat. Cooks select and combine ingredients using a wide range of tools and methods. In the process, the flavor, texture, appearance, and chemical properties of the ingredients can change. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions. Cooks themselves also vary widely in skill and training. Chicken, pork and bacon-wrapped corn cooked in a barbecue smoker Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans, and some scientists believe the advent of cooking played an important role in human evolution.1 Most anthropologists believe that cooking fires first developed around 250,000 years ago. The development of agriculture, commerce and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation. Contents 1 History of cooking 2 Ingredients in cooking 2.1 Proteins 2.2 Carbohydrates 2.3 Fats 2.4 Water 2.5 Vitamins and minerals 3 Cooking methods 4 Methods of cooking 4.1 Roasting 4.2 Baking 4.3 Boiling 4.4 Frying 4.5 Smoking 5 Food safety 5.1 Effects on nutritional content of food 6 Science of cooking 7 Home-cooking vs. factory cooking 8 See also 9 References 10 External links // History of cooking Historical Oven cooking depicted in a painting by Jean-François Millet Cooking utilizes many foods. See also: Culinary arts There is no clear evidence as to when cooking was invented. Primatologist Richard Wrangham stated that cooking was invented as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago.2 Other researchers believe that cooking was invented as late as 40,000 or 10,000 years ago. Evidence of fire is inconclusive as wildfires started by lightning-strikes are still common in East Africa and other wild areas, and it is difficult to determine when fire was first used for cooking, as opposed to just being used for warmth or for keeping predators away. Most anthropologists contend that cooking fires began in earnest barely 250,000 years ago, when ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint appear across Europe and the middle East. The only evidence of human use of fire more than two million years ago is burnt earth with human remains, which most anthropologists consider coincidence rather than evidence of intentional fire.citation needed

However, some Fire-cracked rock, such as that in Central Texas (United States) are burned rock middens, or enormous piles fire-damaged rock dated to c. 3,500 years ago. These may represent the remains of earth ovens used in cooking since they contain evidence of Dasylirion wheeleri bulbs and other plants. In Great Britain similar Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age features exist, but are commonly called 'burnt mounds'.3 Ingredients in cooking Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living things. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi. Cooks also utilize water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine, an alcohol-based liquid from the fermentation of juices of grapes or other fruits. Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called proteins, carbohydrates and fats. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules. Proteins Various raw meats Red kidney beans contain protein. Main article: Protein Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk, eggs and egg whites, contains substantial amounts of protein. Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts. These may also be a source of essential amino acids. When proteins are heated they become denatured and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable - meat becomes cooked. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component of much cake cookery, and also underpins many desserts based on meringue. Carbohydrates Grain products are often baked, and are rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates. Main article: Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (from the digestion of table sugar) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot, potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into simpler sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, then caramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins elicits the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.

An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces. In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous saccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat. Fats Tempura Deep fried shrimp is usually cooked in vegetable oil and is often served with Soy Sauce. Main article: Fat Types of fat include vegetable oils and animal products such as butter and lard. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying or sautéing. Water Water is often used to cook foods such as noodles. Main article: Water Cooking often involves water which is frequently present as other liquids, both added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods themselves. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used may be based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients - this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making. Vitamins and minerals Main articles: Vitamins and Minerals Vitamins are materials required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from soil. Vitamins come from a number of sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver e ( B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium and sulphur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins4 in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking.5 Cooking methods A Sunday roast consisting of roast beef, roast potatoes, vegetables, and yorkshire pudding A Braised pot roast dish. This section requires expansion.

See also Category:Cooking techniques Methods of cooking There are very many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the end result. Some foods are more appropriate to some methods than others. Some major hot cooking techniques include: Roasting Roasting - Barbecuing - Grilling - Rotisserie - Searing Baking Baking - Baking Blind - Broiling - Flashbaking Boiling Boiling - Blanching - Braising - Coddling - Double steaming - Infusion - Poaching - Pressure cooking - Simmering - Steaming - Steeping - Stewing - Vacuum flask cooking Frying Frying - Deep frying - Hot salt frying - Hot sand frying - Pan frying - Pressure frying - Sautéing - Stir frying Smoking Food smoking Food safety Main article: Food safety Chicken with lemons on a large wooden cutting board. Ddeokbokki is a Korean dish consisting of sautéed rice cakes with vegetables and pork. A cook sautees onions and green peppers on a skillet When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate potentially harmful organisms including bacteria and viruses. The effect will depend on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. The temperature range from 41 °F to 135 °F (5 °C to 57 °C) is the "food danger zone." Between these temperatures bacteria can grow rapidly. Under optimal conditions, E. coli, for example, can double in number every twenty minutes. The food may not appear any different or spoiled but can be harmful to anyone who eats it. Meat, poultry, dairy products, and other prepared food must be kept outside of the "food danger zone" to remain safe to eat. Refrigeration and freezing do not kill bacteria, but only slow their growth. When cooling hot food, it should not be left standing or in a blast chiller for more than 90 minutes. Cutting boards are a potential breeding ground for bacteria, and can be quite hazardous unless safety precautions are taken. Plastic cutting boards are less porous than wood and have conventionally been assumed to be far less likely to harbor bacteria.6 This has been debated, and some research has shown wooden boards are far better.7 Washing and sanitizing cutting boards is highly recommended, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood. Hot water and soap followed by a rinse with an antibacterial cleaner (dilute bleach is common in a mixture of 1 tablespoon per gallon of water, as at that dilution it is considered food safe, though some professionals choose not to use this method because they believe it could taint some foods), or a trip through a dishwasher with a "sanitize" cycle, are effective methods for reducing the risk of illness due to contaminated cooking implements.8 Effects on nutritional content of food A raw tomato sauce with olives, celery, spinach and walnuts on zucchini noodles. A raw vegan lunch See also: Raw foodism

Proponents of Raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that the cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C both elutes the vitamin into the cooking water and degrades the vitamin through oxidation.citation needed Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin.citation needed However, research has also suggested that a greater proportion of nutrients present in food is absorbed from cooked foods than from uncooked foods.5 Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of acrylamide, a possible carcinogen.citation needed Cooking dairy products may reduce a protective effect against colon cancer. Researchers at the University of Toronto suggest that ingesting uncooked or unpasteurized dairy products (see also Raw milk) may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer.9 Mice and rats fed uncooked sucrose, casein, and beef tallow had one-third to one-fifth the incidence of microadenomas as the mice and rats fed the same ingredients cooked.1011 This claim, however, is contentious. According to the Food and Drug Administration of the United States, health benefits claimed by raw milk advocates do not exist.12 "The small quantities of antibodies in milk are not absorbed in the human intestinal tract," says Barbara Ingham, Ph.D., associate professor and extension food scientist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "There is no scientific evidence that raw milk contains an anti-arthritis factor or that it enhances resistance to other diseases." Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.13 While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.13 Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have also been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer.

Research has shown that grilling or barbecuing meat and fish increases levels of carcinogenic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). However, meat and fish only contribute a small proportion of dietary PAH intake - most intake comes from cereals, oils and fats.14 German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients.15 Heating sugars with proteins or fats can produce Advanced glycation end products ("glycotoxins").16 These have been linked to ageing and health conditions such as diabetes. Science of cooking A restaurant kitchen in Munich, Germany (Haxnbauer restaurant). A kitchen in Beijing, China with an assortment of foods. The application of scientific knowledge to cooking and gastronomy has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food science. Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as Herve This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist, author), Heston Blumenthal (chef), Ferran Adria (chef), Robert Wolke (chemist, author) and Pierre Gagnaire (chef). Chemical processes central to cooking include the Maillard reaction - a form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid, a reducing sugar and heat. Home-cooking vs. factory cooking Although cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally at home or around a communal fire, cooking is often, and increasingly, carried out outside the home. Bakeries were an early form of cooking outside the home, and bakeries in the past often offered the cooking of foods provided by their customers as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation is rapidly becoming the norm, with many "ready-to-eat" foods being prepared and cooked in factories. "Home-cooking" may be associated with comfort food, and some commercially produced foods are presented as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. See also Food portal Main article: Outline of cooking Carry over cooking Control of fire by early humans Cooker Cooking weights and measures Cuisine Culinary arts Culinary profession Cooking school Dishwashing Food and cooking hygiene Food industry Food preservation Food writing Foodpairing Gourmet Library and museum High altitude cooking International food terms List of food preparation utensils List of recipes Nutrition Recipe Scented water Spices Staple (cooking) References A diagram of a propane smoker used to prepare smoked foods. ^ "?". http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/02/090213-human-diet-cooking.html.  ^ Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human ^ Guttmann, EBA (First published 2005-06-02). "Midden cultivation in prehistoric Britain: arable crops in gardens". Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, UK. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a723664156. Retrieved 2010-03-22.  ^ Loss of nutrients when vegetables are cooked ^ a b "Cooking vegetables 'improves benefits'". BBC News. 1999-06-02. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/359175.stm. Retrieved 2010-04-30.  ^ "Cutting Boards (Plastic Versus Wood)". Food Safety, Preparation and Storage Tips. Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, the University of Arizona. 1998. Archived from the original on 2006-06-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20060613074257/http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/health/foodsafety/az1076.html. Retrieved 2006-06-21.  ^ "Cutting Boards - wood or plastic?". ReluctantGourmet.com. http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/cutting_board.htm. Retrieved 2006-06-21.  ^ Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ (Jul 1980). "Food poisoning from raw red kidney beans". Br Med J 281 (6234): 236–7. PMID 7407532.  ^ Corpet DE, Yin Y, Zhang XM, et al. (1995). "Colonic protein fermentation and promotion of colon carcinogenesis by thermolyzed casein". Nutr Cancer 23 (3): 271–81. doi:10.1080/01635589509514381. PMID 7603887.  ^ Corpet DE, Stamp D, Medline A, Minkin S, Archer MC, Bruce WR (November 1990). "Promotion of colonic microadenoma growth in mice and rats fed cooked sugar or cooked casein and fat". Cancer Res. 50 (21): 6955–8. PMID 2208161. http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=2208161.  ^ Zhang XM, Stamp D, Minkin S, et al. (July 1992). "Promotion of aberrant crypt foci and cancer in rat colon by thermolyzed protein". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 84 (13): 1026–30. doi:10.1093/jnci/84.13.1026. PMID 1608054. http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1608054.  ^ "Got Milk?" by Linda Bren. FDA Consumer. Sept-Oct 2004. ^ a b "Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats". National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines.  ^ Scientific Committee on Food (4 December 2002). "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf. Retrieved 21 August 2010.  ^ Nutr Cancer. 2003;46(2):131-7 ^ Koschinsky T, He CJ, Mitsuhashi T, Bucala R, Liu C, Buenting C, Heitmann K, Vlassara H (1997). "Orally absorbed reactive glycation products (glycotoxins): an environmental risk factor in diabetic nephropathy". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94 (12): 6474–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.12.6474. PMID 9177242. PMC 21074. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/12/6474. 

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